Carl Flügge, one of the last holistic hygienists and discoverer of droplet transmission of infectious diseases.

Carl Flügge is best known for the promotion of studies demonstrating the transmission of all manner of infections, but particularly tuberculosis, by coughed droplets. But it is seldom recognised that Flügge was also influential in a number of other fields comprising the practice of hygiene. One-hundred years following his death in 1923, we review literature related to the studies of Flügge and his colleagues and students and illustrate the particular emphasis he laid upon the environment within which disease and its transmission might be fostered or prevented, embracing and studying aspects essential to the health of any community ranging from fundamental microbiology in the laboratory to subjects as disparate as housing, clean water supply, nutrition, sanitation, socio-economic circumstances and climate. Very early in his career he promoted breast feeding for the prevention of seasonal gastro-enteritis and later the sheltering of cough as a means of preventing the transmission of infected respiratory droplets, not only as regards tuberculosis, but also concerning all manner of other respiratory infections. By the time of Flügge's death the complexification of available scientific methodologies comprising hygiene made it difficult for any individual to comprehend and study the wide range of hygiene-related subjects such as Flügge did. Carl Flügge was one of the last holistic hygienists and an originator of the study of environmental health as a pillar of hygiene.

Lanka Mahila Samiti, Mary Rutnam and girls' education.

This article engages with the maternal education politics in late colonial Sri Lanka by looking at the implementation of maternal health in the gendered syllabus of middle-class girls' schools. After decades of gender-specific education, the 1930s saw a homogenisation of teachings in these schools through the impact of Mary Rutnam's health manuals. Rutnam was a Canadian doctor who had been living in Sri Lanka for most of her adult life and was seen as a local. She was also active in establishing women's and girls' organisations and political groups. Especially the Lanka Mahila Samiti (LMS) was greatly influential and still is today. The LMS specifically aims at educating the rural women in maternal health and other forms of hygiene with the goal to increase their political and cultural agency. This article examines the relationship between Rutnam's handbooks for girls' schools and the globality of the discourse of motherhood, on the one hand, and the hierarchical divide between the urban middle-class woman and the rural woman, on the other hand. I will argue that by applying the classist discourse of eugenics and hygiene, the teaching of maternal health was transformed in Sri Lanka to create a notion of motherhood that was detached from religion, as it previously was so often framed by it but was highly racialised and classist. This notion of motherhood continues to exist and informs the teaching of sexuality in contemporary Sri Lankan middle-class girls' schools.

Locating hygienic medicine within the intellectual history of hygiene: cases of E. W. Lane and T. R. Allinson.

Nineteenth century hygiene might be a confusing concept. On the one hand, the concept of hygiene was gradually becoming an important concept that was focused on cleanliness and used interchangeably with sanitation. On the other hand, the classical notions of hygiene rooted in the Hippocratic teachings remained influential. This study is about two attempts to newly theorise such a confusing concept of hygiene in the second half of the century by Edward. W. Lane and Thomas R. Allinson. Their works, standing on the borders of self-help medical advice and theoretical treatises on medical philosophies, were not exactly scholarly ones, but their medical thoughts - conceptualised as hygienic medicine - show a characteristically holistic medical view of hygiene, a nineteenth-century version of the reinterpretation of the nature cure philosophy and vitalism. However, the aim of this study is to properly locate their conceptualisations of hygienic medicine within the historical context of the second half of the nineteenth century rather than to simply introduce the medical ideas in their books. Their views of hygiene were distinguished not only from the contemporary sanitary approach but also from similar attempts by contemporary orthodox and unorthodox medical doctors. Through a chronological analysis of changes in the concept of hygiene and a comparative analysis of these two authors' and other medical professionals' views of hygiene, this paper aims to help understand the complicated picture of nineteenth-century hygiene, particularly during the second half of the century, from the perspective of medical holism and reductionism.

Catharine Beecher and the Mechanical Body: Physiology, Evangelism, and American Social Reform from the Antebellum Period to the Gilded Age.

From the mid-nineteenth century to the Gilded Age, Catharine Beecher and other American social reformers combined natural theology and evangelism to instruct their audiences how to lead healthy, virtuous, and happy lives. Worried about the consequences of urbanization, industrialization, unstable sexual and gender roles, and immigration, these "Christian physiologists" provided prescriptive scientific advice for hygiene and personal conduct based on the traditional norms of white, middle-class, Protestant domesticity. According to Beecher and her counterparts, the biosocial reproduction of ideal American households promised to reverse the degeneration of men and women across the country and to ensure the long-term vitality of their children. Using evidence from Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and other nineteenth-century writers, I investigate the methods and aims of Christian physiology along with its relationships to natural theology, Darwinian feminism, and other reform movements. I also analyze how Beecher and her successors employed concepts including the machine, the tissue, the cell, and the germ to justify their conclusions about the optimal structure and functions of American society. Overall, I demonstrate how these actors leveraged the body and the family as mechanisms to produce healthy parents, children, and communities for an ailing nation.

Nursing Experts, Hygienic Modernity, and Nation Building: The Case of Nursing in Ethiopia in the Post-Colonial Era.

This is a tale in three parts. It begins with an exploration of the story of Princess Tsahai, daughter of Haile Selassie, and the highly successful British campaign led by suffragette E. Sylvia Pankhurst to bring British-style nursing and medicine to Ethiopia in the 1940s and 1950s. Second, it examines the role of foreign women, most notably Swedish missionary nurses, in building health services and nursing capacity in the country. Finally, it examines the way in which nursing brought together gendered notions of expertise and geopolitical pressures to redefine expectations for Ethiopian women as citizens of the new nation-state.

After Pettenkofer. Munich's Institute of Hygiene and the long shadow of National Socialism, 1894-1974.

The year 2019 marked the 140th anniversary of the inauguration of the first Institute of Hygiene, which was established for Max von Pettenkofer at the university of Munich. After Pettenkofer, his successors tried to advance the science of hygiene each in their own specific way, highlighting different aspects and trying to relate them to Pettenkofer's legacy: Max von Gruber promoted an understanding of hygiene which was more and more tied to constitutional and racial factors, Karl Kisskalt tried to revise a perceived bacteriological paradigm, and Hermann Eyer focused on preventive public health measures. All of those influences had a more or less explicit and distinct connection to the general development of German medicine in the first half of the 20th century and its culmination in National Socialist crimes. The history of Munich's Institute of Hygiene after Pettenkofer illustrates the differing scientific and ideological paths this development pursued by the examples of its three long-term protagonists and their relationship to National Socialism.

Scatological Asklepios: The Use of Excrement in Graeco-Roman Healthcare.

In the classical world, "official" rationalistic medicine made therapeutic use of excrement, urine and other substances that modern humans normally regard as repulsive (this was even true of Galen, the culminating authority); and popular medicine seems to have done so on a large scale. Such practices, which finally lost their professional though not their popular acceptability in the 18th century, have been studied to good purpose by other historians, but they have never been explained in a satisfactory fashion, partly because the relevant evidence is highly diverse. The present paper, by considering the long term (pre-Greek as well as Greek and Roman) and all the relevant contexts, including ancient feelings of disgust and the general state of ancient pharmacology, and by probing people's subconscious motives, attempts to establish a multi-factor explanation. This explanation balances traditions, beliefs about the inherent qualities, physical and magical, of natural substances, and the psychological needs of both healers and the sick.

"Une plus brillante moisson de citoyens sains et robustes": Eugenic Discourses in French Canada (1902-10).

The Association des médecins de langue française d'Amérique du Nord (AMLFAN) was founded in Québec at the turn of the twentieth century. The physicians who convened at the Association between 1902 and 1910 shared a concern for the degeneration of the French-Canadian "race" under the effects of alcoholism, tuberculosis, and syphilis. For hygienists such as Arthur Rousseau and Charles-Narcisse Valin, this state of degeneration called for hygienic measures that would help regenerate and improve the French-Canadian race. While their suggestion that marriages be matched scientifically in order to prevent the transmission of hereditary and acquired defects from parent to offspring may be reminiscent of eugenics, French-Canadian physicians seemed to have no knowledge of Sir Francis Galton - eugenics' "founding father" - and his work on the topic. This article compares French-Canadian eugenic discourses with Galtonian eugenics in order to shed light on the particularities of the French-Canadian case.

"La Toilette". When a doctor becomes a painter: Frederic Bazille.

PURPOSE: To find endocrinological disturbances in impressionism. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Analysis of "La Toilette" painting of Frederice Bazille. RESULTS: We present a masterpiece work of Frederic Bazille "La Toilette" where a large goiter is visible. Short description of Bazille's life and painting is included. CONCLUSION: Despite of unique painting technique, thyroid disorders are visible even in impressionism.

80 Years of the Medicine and Tropical Hygiene Center in Gdynia (1937-2017): The Pioneer Pre-War Years 1937-1939.

The present Interdepartmental Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine in Gdynia of the Medical University of Gdansk was formally established in 1939 by the Order of June 5, 1939, of the Minister of Social Welfare, Marian Zyndram-Koscialkowski. However, the Branch of the National Institute of Hygiene in Gdynia was founded 2 years earlier, in 1937 (the first head was Dr. Med. Jerzy Jakóbkiewicz [1892-1953]), and its fruitful activity was ennobled 2 years later by increasing its rank and adding the name "Marine and Tropical Hygiene Institute". These facts are very little known, and therefore worth presenting in the jubilee years of the 80th anniversary of the institution.

[Eloísa Díaz: between medicine, psychology and education]. / Eloísa Díaz Inzunza: entre la medicina, la psicología y la educación.

Eloísa Díaz Insunza, the first Latin American female physician, completed her studies in Medicine and Surgery at the University of Chile in 1887 and worked a large part of her life as Medical Inspector of Public Schools of Santiago, Chile. In this article, the focus is placed on her "Test Memorandum" (1886) and her first Reports to the Ministry of Public Education (1899-1905), to appreciate the hygienist perspective that characterizes her proposals. We describe her intervention project that sought to integrate medical practice with psychology and education, to solve a social problem such as the degeneration of the Chilean race.

Manuel González Rivera. Promotor de la educación higiénica en México durante la década de 1940.

This article revisits Doctor Manuel González Rivera's work as a promoter of hygiene education in Mexico during the 1940s. From his classroom at the School of Public Health and head of the Hygiene Education Department of the Ministry of Health and Assistance, González Rivera produced an interesting bibliography on the meaning and importance of hygiene education. Based on three of his most important books, Educación Higiénica (Hygiene Education) (1943), Doña Eugenesia y otros personajes. Materiales de educación higiénica popular (Eugenics and other characters. Popular hygiene education materials) (1943) and Enfermedades transmisibles. Cartilla para maestros rurales (Communicable diseases. A booklet for rural teachers) (1944), this article highlights his pedagogical and social work in the design of strategies and tools for health personnel and rural teachers to educate the population in matters of prevention and hygiene habits promotion.

Este artículo rescata la labor del médico Manuel González Rivera como promotor de la educación higiénica en México durante la década de 1940. Desde su aula en la Escuela de Salubridad y como jefe de la Dirección de Educación Higiénica de la Secretaría de Salubridad y Asistencia, González Rivera produjo una interesante bibliografía sobre el significado e importancia de la educación higiénica. Con base en tres de sus principales libros: Educación Higiénica (1943), Doña Eugenesia y otros personajes. Materiales de educación higiénica popular (1943) y Enfermedades transmisibles. Cartilla para maestros rurales (1944), este artículo destaca su labor pedagógica y social en el diseño de estrategias e insumos para que personal sanitario y maestros rurales educaran a la población en materia de prevención y fomento de hábitos higiénicos.

The 70 year anniversary of the Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny / Annals of the National Institute of Hygiene

The article presents the genesis of the foundation and development of 'Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny' [Annals of the National Institute of Hygiene] since 1950 to 2019, scientific peer-reviewed journal devoted to research studies on the food and water safety, nutrition, environmental hygiene, toxicology and health risk assessment, and public health. It also shows the difficulties that this journal had initially to struggle with, and its achievements in recent years, aiming to improve its international position. The article discusses the stages of journal's development and activity in terms of scientific, editorial and publishing.

State Hygiene School as a Department of Education in the National Institute of Hygiene in Warsaw

The article presents the history of the establishment of the State School of Hygiene (PSH) in Poland after the First World War. The difficulties faced by the public health service in a country destroyed by war and created after the reunification of the lands, which for over 150 years remained under the control of three powers, were pointed out. It discusses how the foundations of modern teaching in the field of public health were created in the National Institute of Hygiene (PZH) in Warsaw, an institution to which the Ministry of Public Health entrusted tasks related to health education in the country. The State School of Hygiene was built by the Polish Government with a significant financial contribution from the John Davison Rockefeller Foundation. The official opening ceremony took place on 20 April 1926. The State School of Hygiene in Warsaw was the first such school in Europe. It educated professional staff for the health service in Poland, especially sanitary physicians, sanitary inspectors, nurses and staff to work in health offices. The importance and scope of influence of the State School of Hygiene as the Department of Education in the National Institute of Hygiene was constantly increasing, as evidenced by the number of students (about 800 per year) participating in courses, especially in the first years after its establishment. By the end of 1935, 6,389 students had completed the courses, including 1,900 physicians. Apart from the teaching activities, the State School of Hygiene also carried out research work. The State School of Hygiene was supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, which funded scholarships for the employees of the National Institute of Hygiene at university centers in the USA

Always stay cheerful - health information in the 1920s. / Vær alltid i godt humør ­ helseopplysning i 1920-årene.

BACKGROUND: The interwar period was a time of comprehensive preventive health programmes in Norway. Physical exercise, nutritious diets, strict sleep regimens and better hygiene were at the centre of these efforts. A massive mobilisation of volunteers and professionals took place. The publication of House Maxims for Mothers and Children was part of this large-scale mobilisation, and consisted of ten posters with pithy health advice for hanging on the wall. Mothers were an important target group for health promotion. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The posters have previously received little attention in medical literature, but they can elucidate some features of life and the health propaganda of their time. We have used databases that provide access to newspapers, books and medical literature: Retriever, bokhylla.no, Oria, PubMed and Web of Science. RESULTS: It is hard to quantify the effect of this popular movement when compared to political measures to improve living conditions. In any case, mortality rates fell, life expectancy increased and the dreaded communicable diseases were largely defeated. Special efforts were targeted at children, also with good results. Infant mortality fell and schoolchildren became healthier, stronger, taller and cleaner. INTERPRETATION: The line between social hygiene and general disciplining is blurred, for example the boundary between a healthy diet and bourgeois norms. The education of mothers and children also included a normative aspect that concerned good manners and control.

The Penetration of 'Sanitary Discipline' in Colonial Local Society: Hygiene and Medical Care Problem in the Honam Plain in Korea.

This paper intends to examine the realities of modern hygiene and medical institutions making their appearance in the rural Honam Plain (often called the "rice basket") of colonial Korea in terms of organizing local units and spreading colonial 'sanitary discipline' throughout the region. In the Honam area, modern medical staff and facilities tended to concentrate on the cities in plain region (Kunsan, Jeonju, and Iri), while in the counties in mountainous region they were placed in the township where head office of each county was located. The case of Iksan County in plain region represented this pattern, which was closely associated with the behavior pattern of local Japanese immigrants as well as population growth (i.e., urbanization). The colonial city of Iri in Iksan County with burgeoning population of Japanese immigrants witnessed an early case of hygiene association right after Japan's annexation of Korea in 1910. The Iri hygiene association was a product of organizational restructuring of the pre- annexation Japanese resident association into the school association after the annexation, under which it was subordinated. It stands as an interesting contrast to the Jeonju hygiene association organized 'autonomously' under the official (police) auspices in the mid-1930s, which did not undergo the stage of school association. Yet, both cases represented the urban 'autonomous' (civil) organizations' effort to transplant colonial 'sanitary discipline' into the colonial local societies without recourse to the hygiene police apparatus. On the other hand, the sanitary project in rural areas was carried out on the basis of model hygiene village, with the identical purpose of raising awareness of hygiene and prohibiting epidemics just as the hygiene association in cities. However, considering the low level of epidemic inspection of Korean patients, the effect of the Japanese colonial sanitary project in Korean local societies was disappointing. There was an ever-widening gap in the colonial hygiene and medical services between Koreans and their colonizers as well as between urban and rural areas.

Propagandizing the Healthy, Bolshevik Life in the Early USSR.

This essay outlines the problems facing Soviet health authorities at the inception of the People's Commissariat of Public Health in 1918 and the innovative methods employed in sanitary enlightenment propaganda in Russia throughout the 1920s. Beset by funding issues and supply problems, the emissaries of health chose the cheapest means of health improvement (propaganda) with the most cost-effective method (prevention), and crowed of great successes even as large portions of the nation still suffered from lack of contact with sanitary authorities. Targeting Soviet citizens at every stage and space of life, the envoys of public health spread the message of prophylaxis.

Research findings from the Memories of Nursing oral history project.

Capturing the stories of nurses who practised in the past offers the opportunity to reflect on the changes in practice over time to determine lessons for the future. This article shares some of the memories of a group of 16 nurses who were interviewed in Bournemouth, UK, between 2009 and 2016. Thematic analysis of the interview transcripts identified a number of themes, three of which are presented: defining moments, hygiene and hierarchy. The similarities and differences between their experiences and contemporary nursing practice are discussed to highlight how it may be timely to think back in order to take practice forward positively in the future.

Carmine Melino and the Institute of Hygiene.

Throughout his 94 years of life, Carmine Melino brilliantly pursued different professional paths, his life being a constant stimulus for students, colleagues, friends and the family. Following the early formative years of study, here, we briefly list his scientific achievements in Occupational Medicine and Hygiene as well as his broad literary interests. Carmine was an inspiration to his generation not only because of his professional achievements, but also for his warm personality, exemplary hard-playing life and unbounded enthusiasm. A polymath, post-enlightenment ethos flowed to all his friends and colleagues, creating an ambience where intellectual excellence was highly appreciated and avidly pursued.

The Museum of the Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome.

This paper illustrates in detail the birth of the Museum of Public Health of the Sapienza University of Rome, which has been one of the most successful achievements of Prof Carmine Melino in the last few years of his academic career. Backed by a very thin group of enthousiastic coworkers and colleagues, he recuperated all the instruments which had been used by the research groups active since 1880 at the former Institute of Hygiene, to which he added samples of the different pieces of laboratory furniture, ancient reagents, etc. The goal was not to simply collect, restore and maintain the documents of the Institute's past, but to rebuild a vintage laboratory, as it was inhabited by the hygienists of the past and to describe the kinds of research being performed during a period more than a century long. Beginning from the days when Hygiene became a scientific discipline, he tried to demonstrate that only the transformation of Hygiene into an experimental discipline made it possible the numberless achievements, including the improvements of the environmental conditions, the reduction of infectious diseases and the successful fight against the chronic, degenerative diseases of the present times.