Synergistic susceptibility to environmental lead toxicity in chronic kidney disease.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: While high levels of lead exposure, as occurs accidentally or occupationally, can cause toxicity across multiple organ systems, the hazard of commonly encountered levels of lead in the environment remains unresolved. Challenges to researching the health effects of lead include its complex interplay with renal function, rendering analyses at risk of unaccounted confounding, and the likely small effect size of environmental levels of exposure. While children are known to be disproportionately susceptible to lead toxicity, resulting in appropriately more stringent regulatory surveillance for those under 5 years old, emerging evidence suggests that those with chronic kidney disease (CKD) similarly are at a greater risk. This review summarizes the role of environmental lead toxicity as a potential cause and consequence of CKD. RECENT FINDINGS: Whether environmental lead exposure causes CKD remains debatable, with little recent research advancing the conflicting, mostly cross-sectional, analyses from years ago. However, an emerging body of evidence suggests that CKD increases the susceptibility to lead toxicity. Higher circulating lead levels and lower urinary excretion result in greater lead accumulation in CKD, with simultaneous greater risk of clinically meaningful disease. Recent studies suggest that levels of lead found commonly in the United States drinking water supply, and currently permissible by the Environmental Protection Agency, associate with hematologic toxicity in those with advanced CKD. Whether environmental lead contamination may have additional negative health impact among this at-risk population, including cardiovascular and neurocognitive disease, warrants further study. SUMMARY: The underlying pathophysiology of kidney disease synergizes the susceptibility to environmental lead toxicity for those with CKD. Low levels of exposure, as found commonly in the United States water supply, may have adverse health impact in CKD. Further research will be needed to determine if more stringent environmental regulations are warranted to protect the health of all.

Firearm-Related Lead Exposure and Child Lead Levels in the United States, 2012-2018.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if firearm ownership is positively related to elevated child lead levels at a state-level, even when accounting for other sources of lead. STUDY DESIGN: For this cross-sectional ecological study, we investigated whether household firearm ownership rates (a proxy for firearm-related lead exposure) was associated with the prevalence of elevated child blood lead levels in 44 US States between 2012 and 2018. To account for potential confounding, we adjusted for other known lead exposures, poverty rate, population density, race, and calendar year. To address missing data, we used multiple imputation by chained equations. RESULTS: Prevalence of elevated child blood lead positively correlated with household firearm ownership and established predictors of lead exposure. In fully adjusted negative binomial regression models, child blood lead was positively associated with household firearm ownership and older housing; each IQR (14%) increase in household firearm ownership rate was associated with a 41% higher prevalence of childhood elevated blood lead (prevalence ratio: 1.41, 95% CI: 1.11-1.79). CONCLUSION: These data provide state-level evidence that firearms may be an important source of child lead exposure. More research is needed to substantiate this relationship and identify modifiable pathways of exposure at the individual level.

Mapping Blood Lead Levels in China during 1980-2040 with Machine Learning.

Lead poisoning is globally concerning, yet limited testing hinders effective interventions in most countries. We aimed to create annual maps of county-specific blood lead levels in China from 1980 to 2040 using a machine learning model. Blood lead data from China were sourced from 1180 surveys published between 1980 and 2022. Additionally, regional statistical figures for 15 natural and socioeconomic variables were obtained or estimated as predictors. A machine learning model, using the random forest algorithm and 2973 generated samples, was created to predict county-specific blood lead levels in China from 1980 to 2040. Geometric mean blood lead levels in children (i.e., age 14 and under) decreased significantly from 104.4 µg/L in 1993 to an anticipated 40.3 µg/L by 2040. The number exceeding 100 µg/L declined dramatically, yet South Central China remains a hotspot. Lead exposure is similar among different groups, but overall adults and adolescents (i.e., age over 14), females, and rural residents exhibit slightly lower exposure compared to that of children, males, and urban residents, respectively. Our predictions indicated that despite the general reduction, one-fourth of Chinese counties rebounded during 2015-2020. This slower decline might be due to emerging lead sources like smelting and coal combustion; however, the primary factor driving the decline should be the reduction of a persistent source, legacy gasoline-derived lead. Our approach innovatively maps lead exposure without comprehensive surveys.

Blood lead levels in an endangered vulture decline following changes in hunting activity.

Lead ammunition stands out as one of the most pervasive pollutants affecting wildlife. Its impact on bird populations have spurred efforts for the phase-out of leaded gunshot in several countries, although with varying scopes and applications. Ongoing and future policy changes require data to assess the effectiveness of adopted measures, particularly in the current context of biodiversity loss. Here, we assessed the long-term changes in blood lead (Pb) levels of Egyptian vultures from the Canary Islands, Spain, which have been severely affected by Pb poisoning over the past two decades. During this period, the reduction in hunting pressure and changes in legislation regarding firearms usage for small game hunting likely contributed to a decrease in environmental Pb availability. As anticipated, our results show a reduction in Pb levels, especially after the ban on wild rabbit hunting with shotgun since 2010. This effect was stronger in the preadult fraction of the vulture population. However, we still observed elevated blood Pb levels above the background and clinical thresholds in 5.6% and 1.5% of individuals, respectively. Our results highlight the positive impact of reducing the availability of Pb from ammunition sources on individual health. Nonetheless, the continued use of Pb gunshot remains an important source of poisoning, even lethal, mainly affecting adult individuals. This poses a particular concern for long-lived birds, compounding by potential chronic effects associated with Pb bioaccumulation. Our findings align with recent studies indicating insufficient reductions in Pb levels among European birds of prey, attributed to limited policy changes and their uneven implementation. We anticipated further reductions in Pb levels among Egyptian vultures with expanded restrictions on hunting practices, including a blanket ban on Pb shot usage across all small game species.

Effect of Environmental and Socioeconomic Factors on Increased Early Childhood Blood Lead Levels: A Case Study in Chicago.

This study analyzes the prevalence of elevated blood lead levels (BLLs) in children across Chicagoland zip codes from 2019 to 2021, linking them to socioeconomic, environmental, and racial factors. Wilcoxon tests and generalized additive model (GAM) regressions identified economic hardship, reflected in per capita income and unemployment rates, as a significant contributor to increased lead poisoning (LP) rates. Additionally, LP rates correlate with the average age of buildings, particularly post the 1978 lead paint ban, illustrating policy impacts on health outcomes. The study further explores the novel area of land surface temperature (LST) effects on LP, finding that higher nighttime LST, indicative of urban heat island effects, correlates with increased LP. This finding gains additional significance in the context of anthropogenic climate change. When these factors are combined with the ongoing expansion of urban territories, a significant risk exists of escalating LP rates on a global scale. Racial disparity analysis revealed that Black and Hispanic/Latino populations face higher LP rates, primarily due to unemployment and older housing. The study underscores the necessity for targeted public health strategies to address these disparities, emphasizing the need for interventions that cater to the unique challenges of these at-risk communities.

Lead exposure sources and public health investigations for children with elevated blood lead in England, 2014 to 2022.

BACKGROUND: Lead exposure at any concentration can adversely impact health, with children being more vulnerable to its effects. In England, children with an elevated blood lead concentration (BLC) are reported to Health Protection Teams (HPTs) for public health investigation. A detailed review of these cases has not yet been conducted. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to describe the demographics, likely setting and sources of lead exposure, risk behaviours, public health investigations and outcomes for children aged <16 years with a BLC requiring public health action reported to HPTs between 2014-2022 in England. METHODS: Data were collected via a lookback questionnaire and a live enhanced surveillance questionnaire. Data were deduplicated, cleaned and results summarised as numbers and percentages using R studio. A thematic analysis was conducted on qualitative responses to a question relating to problems experienced during case investigation. RESULTS: There were 340 cases in our study: the majority were aged 1-4 years old (53%) and male (69%). Ethnicity data was poorly recorded. A higher than expected proportion (31%) lived in the most deprived areas. Pica (76%) and learning difficulties (60%) were often present. Cases were primarily exposed to lead in the domestic setting (92%) with paint (43%) and soil (29%) the most common exposures. Most cases lived in rented accommodation (63%), with a higher proportion in social rentals (48%) than privately rented (37%). Case investigations were resource intensive and poor stakeholder engagement/response was most frequently identified as challenging by HPTs. CONCLUSIONS: Lead exposure is harmful to children and requires public health and clinical management, which can be complex and challenging. Prevention of lead exposure in children should be the focus of intervention efforts. Outreach, engagement and preventative work should focus on both renters and homeowners. Collecting ethnicity data consistently may enable identification of more specific groups at increased risk of lead exposure in England.

Rapid Market Screening to assess lead concentrations in consumer products across 25 low- and middle-income countries.

Lead exposure can have serious consequences for health and development. The neurological and behavioral effects of lead are considered irreversible. Young children are particularly vulnerable to lead poisoning. In 2020, Pure Earth and UNICEF estimated that one in three children had elevated blood lead levels above 5 µg/dL. The sources of lead exposure vary around the world and can range from household products, such as spices or foodware, to environmental pollution from nearby industries. The aim of this study was to analyze common products from markets in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) for their lead content to determine whether they are plausible sources of exposure. In 25 LMICs, the research teams systematically collected consumer products (metal foodware, ceramics, cosmetics, paints, toys, spices and other foods). The items were analyzed on site for detectable lead above 2 ppm using an X-ray fluorescence analyzer. For quality control purposes, a subset of the samples was analyzed in the USA using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The lead concentrations of the individual product types were compared with established regulatory thresholds. Out of 5007 analyzed products, threshold values (TV) were surpassed in 51% for metal foodware (TV 100 ppm), 45% for ceramics (TV 100 ppm), and 41% for paints (TV 90 ppm). Sources of exposure in LMICs can be diverse, and consumers in LMICs lack adequate protection from preventable sources of lead exposure. Rapid Market Screening is an innovative, simple, and useful tool to identify risky products that could be sources of lead exposure.

A novel indicator for lead poisoning beyond blood lead level: Facile diagnosis of lead poisoning using random urine with point-of-care testing.

Lead (Pb) poisoning is estimated to account for 1 % of the global disease burden. The gold standard for diagnosing lead poisoning in human body relies on blood lead level (BLL), which is always performed in hospitals using expensive instruments. However, there are still many countries and regions with a lack of medical resources (without enough professional medical staff and analytical instruments). To achieve a facile diagnosis of lead poisoning by ordinary residents (without any expertise), this study conducted a research study on 810 participants to discover and validate a new lead poisoning indicator (creatinine-corrected urinary lead level, cULL) beyond BLL in non-invasive samples. A point-of-care testing (POCT) device to measure cULL was developed, equipped with liquid-phase microextraction and electromembrane extraction on a paper-based analytical device for on-site separation of lead and creatinine in the urine, using a smartphone for the quantification of analytes. The cULL as a novel indicator and the POCT device developed could be effective in reducing the risk of damage from lead contamination.

Determinant Factors of Children's Blood Lead Levels in Java, Indonesia.

INTRODUCTION: Lead poisoning contributes to a significant burden of disease as a toxic substance found in air, soil, and water. In Indonesia, the risk of exposure is high due to the inappropriate recycling of used lead batteries. The objective was to investigate the factors that influence lead levels in children's blood. METHODS: This cross-sectional study assessed blood lead levels (BLLs) in children aged 12-59 months in four communities exposed to used lead-acid batteries (ULABs) recycling activities, comparing them to a control area. The study employed a threshold level of 20 µg/dL to identify high BLLs and utilized a sample size of 324 children from exposed sites and 240 from control sites. Questionnaires, blood lead tests and a home-based assessment for environmental exposures were applied. RESULTS: The study participants comprised 295 boys and 269 girls, with an average age of 35 months. Significant disparities in soil lead concentrations median: Q1-Q3 were found between exposed (6581.7 : 2432.6-16647.1) ppm and control areas (253.5 : 158.8-417.1) ppm. Children in exposed areas had 3.9 times higher odds of BLL ≥20 µg/dL. Fathers with BLL ≥20 µg/dL had children with similarly elevated BLLs. Multivariate analysis identified socioeconomic status, study areas, environmental factors (cookware, food ware, spices, house cleaning), and children's behavior (breastfeeding duration) as determinants of elevated BLLs. Reported environmental factors had notable impact on BLLs, with aluminum cookware (aOR = 1.4, 95%CI [1.2-1.6]), food ware materials (aOR = 1.15, 95%CI [1.0-1.3]), type of spices (aOR = 2.7, 95%CI [1.7-48.0]), and house cleaning method (aOR = 2.9, 95%CI [1.2-7.1]). CONCLUSION: This study highlighted key risk factors affecting children's blood lead levels (BLL) and emphasized the urgency of employing effective strategies to remediate lead-contaminated soils in exposed regions. The findings underscore the need for prompt medical intervention and monitoring for children in these areas, with additional research essential to fully understand lead poisoning pathways in the environment.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Blood Lead Testing in Children in the United States.

The study objective was to evaluate the impact of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic on pediatric blood lead testing in the United States. Clinical laboratory pediatric (ages <6 years) blood lead level (BLL) tests performed by Quest Diagnostics, January 2019-March 2022, were analyzed. Patients were categorized by age, by sex, and, through matching by ZIP code with US Census data, for race, ethnicity, pre-1950 housing, and poverty estimates. Over 2.8 million results from children (<6 years old) from all 50 states and the District of Columbia were included. Compared to March-May 2019, BLL testing was lower by 53.6% in March-May 2020 and lower by 14.6% in March-May 2021. Testing rebounded more for children in predominantly White non-Hispanic communities and among children living in communities, based on ZIP codes, with the least pre-1950 housing stock and lowest poverty rates. The proportion of children with BLL at or above the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reference values of 3.5 and 5.0 µg/dL fell by 19% and 24%, respectively, in 2021 versus 2019. In conclusion, pediatric BLL testing has rebounded from sharp declines during the early pandemic period but unevenly. Declines in the proportion of children with elevated BLL should be interpreted with caution, as testing rebounds were less robust among communities with the highest risk of lead poisoning, notably communities with the oldest housing stock and higher poverty rates. More public health efforts are needed to address lead toxicity throughout the United States, especially in communities that did not experience a full rebound subsequent to the early COVID-19 pandemic period.

Intoxicación por plomo y nivel de marginación en recién nacidos de Morelos, México / Lead poisoning and marginalization in newborns of Morelos, Mexico

Resumen: Objetivo: Determinar la prevalencia de intoxicación por plomo (IPb) al nacimiento en Morelos, analizar su distribución por nivel de marginación y estimar la asociación con el uso de barro vidriado (BV). Material y métodos: Se midió plomo en sangre (PbS) en cordón umbilical de una muestra representativa de 300 nacimientos seleccionados aleatoriamente de aquéllos atendidos por los Servicios de Salud de Morelos e IMSS estatal. Resultados: La prevalencia de IPb al nacimiento (PbS>5µg/dL) fue 14.7% (IC95%: 11.1, 19.3), y 22.2% (IC95%: 14.4, 32.5) en los municipios más marginados. 57.1% (IC95%: 51.3, 62.7) de las madres usaron BV durante el embarazo y la frecuencia de uso se asoció significativamente con PbS. Conclusión: Este es el primer estudio que documenta la proporción de recién nacidos con IPb que están en riesgo de sufrir los consecuentes efectos adversos. Se recomienda monitorear PbS al nacimiento y emprender acciones para reducir esta exposición, especialmente en poblaciones marginadas.

Abstract: Objective: To determine the prevalence of lead (Pb) poisoning at birth in Morelos, analyze its distribution by social marginalization level, and estimate the association with the use of lead glazed ceramics (LGC). Materials and methods: Blood lead level (BLL) in umbilical cord was measured in a representative sample of 300 randomly selected births at the Morelos Health Services and state IMSS. Results: The prevalence of Pb poisoning at birth (BLL> 5μg/dL) was 14.7% (95%CI: 11.1, 19.3) and 22.2% (95%CI: 14.4, 32.5) in the most socially marginalized municipalities. 57.1% (95%CI: 51.3, 62.7) of the mothers used LGC during pregnancy, and the frequency of use was significantly associated with BLL. Conclusion: This is the first study to document the proportion of newborns with Pb poisoning who are at risk of experiencing the related adverse effects. It is recommended to monitor BLL at birth and take action to reduce this exposure, especially in socially marginalized populations.

Proximity of residence to an old mineral storage site in Chile and blood lead levels in children / Proximidade residencial com um velho depósito mineral no Chile e nível de chumbo no sangue em crianças / Proximidad residencial con un viejo depósito mineral en Chile y el nivel de plomo en sangre de niños

Evidence suggests that an old mineral storage site removed in 1998 due to high lead content, remains as a source of exposure in the city of Antofagasta, Chile. The aim was to determine the association between blood lead levels in children and the residential proximity to the old mineral storage site. A cross sectional study was conducted with 185 children aged 7 to 16 years. The outcome variable was blood lead levels measured in 2005. The exposure variable was the distance between the current residence and the old mineral storage site. The distance was measured in meters by Geographic Information System (GIS). The median blood lead level in 2005 was 3.3μg/dL (interquartile range ‒ IQR: 2.0-4.3). A significant inverse association was found between the residential distance to the old mineral storage site and the blood lead levels in children, after adjusting by confounders (β: -0.04; 95%CI: -0.09; -0.01). This result suggests that the old mineral storage site continues to be a source of lead exposure for the children living nearby.

A evidência sugere que um depósito de minerais removido em 1998 por seu alto teor de chumbo ainda poderia ser uma fonte relevante de exposição a este metal, na cidade de Antofagasta, Chile. O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar a associação entre a distância da residência até o antigo depósito e a concentração de chumbo no sangue. Estudo transversal com 185 crianças de 7-16 anos. A variável dependente foi a concentração de chumbo no sangue medido em 2005; a exposição foi a distância (metros) entre a residência atual e o antigo depósito de chumbo, obtida por meio do Sistema de Informação Geográfica (SIG). A concentração de chumbo no sangue foi de 3,3μg/dL (intervalo interquartil ‒IQR: 2,0-4.3). Constatou-se uma relação inversa entre a distância da casa para o antigo local de recolha e a concentração de chumbo no sangue (β: -0,04; IC95%: -0,09; -0,01). Esse resultado confirma que o antigo lugar de armazenagem do minério continua a ser uma fonte relevante de exposição ao chumbo.

Evidencia sugiere que un antiguo sitio de acopio de minerales removido en 1998 por el alto contenido de plomo, aún sería una fuente de exposición en la ciudad de Antofagasta, Chile. El objetivo fue determinar la asociación entre la concentración de plomo en sangre y la distancia entre la vivienda actual y el antiguo sitio de acopio. Se realizó un estudio de diseño transversal con 185 niños de 7 a 16 años. La variable dependiente fue la concentración de plomo sanguíneo, medida el 2005. La variable de exposición fue la distancia entre la vivienda actual y el antiguo sitio de acopio. Esta distancia fue medida en metros mediante Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG). La concentración de plomo en sangre fue de 3,3μg/dL (rango intercuartil ‒ RIC: 2,0-4,3). Se encontró una relación inversa y significativa entre la distancia de la vivienda al antiguo sitio de acopio y la concentración de plomo sanguíneo (β: -0,04; IC95%: -0,09; -0,01). Este resultado sugiere que el antiguo sitio de acopio de minerales sigue siendo una fuente de exposición a plomo.

Prevalencia de mercurio y plomo en población general de Bogotá 2012/2013 / Mercury and lead prevalence in a sample of people living in Bogotá, 2012-2013

Objetivos Establecer la prevalencia de mercurio y plomo en población general de Bogotá, posibles efectos en salud y relación con zonas de exposición ambiental. Métodos Estudio transversal, muestra de 401 individuos de población general de Bogotá, distribuida aleatoria y proporcionalmente según localidad y zonas de exposición ambiental de alto, medio y bajo riesgo. Se realizó valoración médica y cuantificación de plomo (sangre) y mercurio (sangre, cabello, orina). Se realizó análisis descriptivo preliminar. Resultados Edad de los participantes: 3-91 años (media 46), ocupación más frecuente ama de casa (45,1 %, n=181); promedios de concentraciones: mercurio en cabello: 1,00 µg/g, sangre: 3,13 µg/L, y orina: 0,29 µg/L; plomo en sangre: 8,62 µg/dL. Individuos con concentraciones superiores a los valores de referencia internacionales: 54 (13,5 %) para mercurio (OMS); 10 (2,5 %) para plomo (CDC). Los hallazgos clínicos son inespecíficos, las zonas de exposición no parecen relacionarse con las concentraciones encontradas. Discusión Un porcentaje importante de individuos presentan concentraciones elevadas de los metales estudiados, lo que resalta la necesidad de identificar y controlar las fuentes ambientales de mercurio y plomo que están afectando a la población general de Bogotá, con posibles consecuencias en su salud.(AU)

Objectives Establishing mercury and lead prevalence in a sample of people living in Bogotá, potential effects on their health and the relationship with areas of environmental exposure. Methods This was a cross-sectional study involving a randomly and proportionally distributed sample of 401 people living in Bogotá, according to locality and their high, medium and low risk environmental exposure. A medical assessment was made and lead (in blood) and mercury levels (blood, hair, urine) quantified. A preliminary descriptive analysis was made. Results The participants were aged 3-91 years-old (mean 46), the most frequently occurring occupation was that of housewife (45.1%, n=181). Mean mercury concentration in hair was 1µg/g, 3.13 µg/L in blood and 0.29 µg/L in urine; lead in blood was found to be 8.62 µg/dL. Fifty-four people (13.5%) had higher concentrations than international reference values for mercury (WHO) and 10 (2.5%) for lead (CDC). Clinical findings were non-specific; exposure areas did not seem to relate to the concentrations found. Discussion A significant percentage of the study population had high mercury and/or lead levels and such high prevalence highlights the need for identifying and controlling sources of exposure to mercury and lead which could have adverse consequences regarding the health of Bogota’s general population.(AU)

Exposición a la contaminación con plomo en taller de ensamble de baterías / Exposure to lead contamination in battery assembly workshop

Introducción: Las consecuencias perjudiciales del plomo (Pb) en la salud de las personas, y los trabajadores en particular, han sido suficientemente demostradas desde hace mucho tiempo. No obstante ser un problema de tan larga data, llega hasta la actualidad; y los talleres de baterías constituyen una de las fuentes de contaminación. Objetivo General: Conocer el nivel de exposición al Pb de la totalidad de trabajadores directos de un taller de ensamble de baterías de la localidad de Boulogne, Buenos Aires. Objetivos Específicos: -Evaluar los registros sobre el nivel de Pb en sangre de los trabajadores entre 2007 y 2013. -Describir las condiciones de trabajo y las prácticas higiénicas de los empleados. -Medir la cantidad de Pb existente en el aire del establecimiento. Material y métodos: Es un estudio observacional descriptivo. El relevamiento general de riesgos se realizó mediante observación directa. Se analizaron las plombemias de los trabajadores. Las prácticas higiénico-laborales se estudiaron mediante un cuestionario semi-estructurado. Se llevó a cabo un estudio del aire. Resultados: El cumplimiento de las normas de seguridad e higiene laboral es parcial. Es una planta pequeña y mal ventilada, sin un adecuado sistema de extracción ni ventilación. No utiliza proceso húmedo o con aspiradores para la limpieza. No es sistemático el recambio de filtros de la campana de extracción ni de los respiradores personales. Las plombemias realizadas entre diciembre de 2007 y marzo de 2013 muestran valores superiores a los límites aceptables, alcanzando el promedio 19,23 ug/100ml (rango: 3 ug/100ml - 48,8 ug/100ml). Existen debilidades en cuanto a la utilización de la máscara de protección con filtros, a su higienización y a la forma en que esto se realiza. Resultados de las muestras del aire: en crisol: concentración de plomo (resultado analítico): 0,06 mg/m³; en intercelda: 0,92 mg/m3; en el sector de etiquetado: 0,03 mg/m³. Conclusiones principales: Se requiere el mejoramiento de las normas de seguridad e higiene laborales.

Introduction: The harmful effects of lead (Pb) on the health of people and workers in particular have long been sufficiently demonstrated. However being a problem as longstanding, arrives to present workshops and batteries are one of the sources of pollution. General Objective: To determine the level of exposure to Pb of all direct workers of a battery assembly workshop in the town of Boulogne, Buenos Aires. Specific Objectives: -Evaluate the records on the level of Pb in blood of workers between 2007 and 2013. -Describe the working conditions and hygiene practices of employees. -Measure the amount of Pb in the air existing in the establishment. Material and Methods: It is an observational descriptive study. The general risk survey-stage was conducted by direct observation. The lead levels of workers were analyzed. Hygiene and work practices were studied using a semi-structured questionnaire. It was made an air study. Results: Compliance with safety and hygiene is partial. It is a small and stuffy plant without adequate ventilation or exhaust system. It does not use wet or vacuum for cleaning process. No systematic replacement filters range hood or personal respirators. The lead levels between December 2007 and March 2013 show above acceptable limits values, reaching 19,23 ug/100ml average (range: 3 ug/100ml - 48,8 ug/100ml). There are weaknesses with regard to the use of the protective mask filters, to sanitize and the way this is done. Results of air samples: in pot: lead concentration (analytical result): 0,06 mg/ m3, in intercell 0,92 mg/m3; labeling sector: 0,03 mg/m3. Main conclusions: improving the safety and health at work is required.

Environmental lead poisoning among children in Porto Alegre state, Southern Brazil / Intoxicação ambiental por chumbo em crianças de Porto Alegre / Intoxicación ambiental por plomo en niños de Porto Alegre, Sur de Brasil

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of lead poisoning in children and to identify associated factors, as well as possible local sources of contamination. METHODS: A cross-sectional prevalence study conducted in 2006 with a random sample of 97 children age zero to five years from a neighborhood in Porto Alegre, Southern Brazil. Blood lead levels were measured and a questionnaire administered to collect information on sociodemographics, recycling and dwelling. A preliminary environmental evaluation was carried out with direct analysis of soil and indirect analysis of air pollution with bioindicators to identify possible sources of contamination. To analyze lead concentrations from the different collection sites, for each type of material studied, ANOVA was performed with a Brown-Forsythe adjustment for heteroscedasticity and with Dunnett's T3 procedure for multiple comparisons of unequal variances. RESULTS: Blood lead levels > 10.0 µg/dL was found in 16.5 percent of children. Recycling of waste at home, low father's education level, and increased age of children were associated with increase blood lead levels. High lead levels were found in soil, and there was little indication of lead air pollution. CONCLUSIONS: A high prevalence of lead poisoning was identified, and the potential sources of contamination in this community appear related to waste recylcing activities. Studies should be conducted with other populations of Brazilian children and evaluate potential sources of local and general contamination, to accurately characterize this issue in Brazil.

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência de intoxicação por chumbo em crianças e identificar fatores associados, bem como possíveis fontes de contaminação local. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal de prevalência com amostra aleatória de 97 crianças de zero a cinco anos de uma vila em Porto Alegre, RS, em 2006. O nível de chumbo no sangue foi medido e foi aplicado questionário para coletar informações sociodemográficas, reciclagem e moradia. Foi realizada avaliação ambiental preliminar com análise direta do solo e indireta da poluição atmosférica utilizando bioindicadores para averiguar possíveis fontes de contaminação. Para avaliar diferenças significantes entre as concentrações encontradas nos pontos de coleta, para cada tipo de material estudado, foi realizada ANOVA com correção de Brown-Forsythe para heterocedasticidade com comparações múltiplas de Dunnett T3 para variâncias desiguais. RESULTADOS: O total de 16,5 por cento das crianças apresentou chumbo sanguíneo > 10,0µg/dL. Reciclagem de lixo no local de moradia, baixo nível educacional do pai e maior idade das crianças estiveram associados com maior concentração de chumbo no sangue. Foram encontrados níveis elevados de chumbo no solo e pouca indicação de poluição atmosférica por esse metal. CONCLUSÕES: Foi observada prevalência significativa de intoxicação por chumbo e as possíveis fontes de contaminação nessa comunidade parecem relacionar-se a atividades de reciclagem de lixo. Estudos devem ser conduzidos com outras populações infantis brasileiras, avaliando possíveis fontes de contaminação locais e gerais, para que se possa dimensionar corretamente essa questão no País.

OBJETIVO: Estimar la prevalencia de intoxicación por plomo en niños e identificar factores asociados, así como posibles fuentes de contaminación local. MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal de prevalencia con muestra aleatoria de 97 niños de cero a cinco años de una villa en Porto Alegre, Sur de Brasil, en 2006. El nivel de plomo en la sangre fue medido y se aplicó cuestionario para colectar informaciones sociodemográficas, reciclaje y vivienda. Se realizó evaluación ambiental preliminar con análisis directo del suelo e indirecto de la polución atmosférica utilizando bioindicadores para investigar posibles fuentes de contaminación. Para evaluar diferencias significativas entre las concentraciones encontradas en los puntos de colecta, para cada tipo de material estudiado, se realizó ANOVA con corrección de Brown-Forsythe para heterocedasticidad con comparaciones múltiples de Dunnett T3 para varianzas desiguales. RESULTADOS: Un total de 16,5 por ciento de los niños presentó plomo sanguíneo > 10,0µg/dL. Reciclaje de basura en el lugar de vivienda, bajo nivel educacional del padre y mayor edad de los niños estuvieron asociados con mayor concentración de plomo en la sangre. Se encontraron niveles elevados de plomo en el suelo y poca indicación de polución atmosférica por dicho metal. CONCLUSIONES: Se observó prevalencia significativa de intoxicación por plomo y las posibles fuentes de contaminación en la comunidad evaluada parecen relacionarse con actividades de reciclaje de basura. Estudios deben realizarse con otras poblaciones infantiles brasileñas, evaluando posibles fuentes de contaminación locales y generales, para que se pueda dimensionar correctamente este tema en el País.

Contenido de plomo sanguíneo y composición corporal en mujeres jóvenes expuestas a humo de madera en la ciudad de Temuco / Blood lead levels and body composition in young women exposed to wood smoke in the city of Temuco

One of the main concerns in the cities ofdeveloping countries is the coexistence of environmental pollution, malnutrition and overweight. The city of Temuco is highly polluted and the range of circulating lead of their inhabitants is unknown. The objective of this work was to study the potential association between blood lead concentration and body composition in young women (n=45) living in the city of Temuco, which were exposed permanently to wood smoke. Blood lead concentration was analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry with graphite furnace (AAS-GF) and the body composition was determined by isotopic dilution (deuterium). All participants presented high percentage offat mass (FM) and 66.7% of them had blood lead levels over the accepted international limits (5µgldl; EPA; USA), although lower than the Chilean normative (40µgldl), which were not correlated with the % of FM. The high percentage of overweight and obesity together with the lead blood levels found in this study constitute risk factors that may affect health and life quality of the participants in the medium term.

Uno de los problemas más frecuentes en las ciudades de países en desarrollo es la coexistencia de polución ambiental, malnutrición y sobrepeso. La ciudad de Temuco posee una elevada contaminación ambiental y se desconoce el rango de las concentraciones de plomo circulante en la población. El objetivo de este trabajo fue estudiar la concentración de plomo sanguíneo en mujeres temuquenses expuestas a humo de leña doméstico en forma continua (n=45), y su posible asociación con la composición corporal. La concentración sanguínea de plomo fue analizada por espectrofotometría de absorción atómica con horno de grafito (AAS-GF), y la composición corporal se determinó por el método de dilución isotópica (deuterio). Todas las mujeres participantes registraron elevados porcentajes de masa grasa (MG) y un 66.7% de ellas registró concentraciones de plomo sanguíneo sobre los niveles aceptados internacionalmente (5 μg/dl; EPA; USA), aunque bajo la normativa chilena (40 μg/dl), los que no se correlacionaron con el % de MG. El elevado porcentaje de sobrepeso y obesidad junto a los niveles de plomo observados en este estudio constituyen factores de riesgo que afectarán en un mediano plazo la salud y calidad de vida de las participantes.

Niveles de plomo en sangre en niños venezolanos publicaciones en artículos científicos (1993-2006) / Blood lead levels in venezuelan children reported in scientific articles

El objetivo de esta investigación fue realizar una revisión de los níveles de plomo en sangre en niños venezolanos reportados en los artículos científicos publicados entre los años 1993-2996. El estudio fue del tipo documental y las bases de datos consultadas fueron PubMed/MEDLINE, EBDCO, ProQuest, Scielo, REVENCYT, FUNDACID BC UC, utilizando las palabras clave: niños, níveles de plomo en sangre, revisión, Venezuela. En total fueron recopilados 13 artículos, el 85% de estos fueron del tipo descriptivo. La mayor proporción (39%) de estudios revisados fueron clasificados como ambientales. La media de las medias de los níveles de plomo en sangre reportadas en los estudios fue de 12,61 ± 3,95% µg/dL, IC95%[10,23; 14,99 µg/dL]. En el 84,6% de las investigaciones realizadas se observaron medias de plomo en sangre en niños mayores a su límite permisible (10 µg/dL) Esta investigación podría servir de evidencia sobre los niveles de plomo observados en niños venezolanos, contribuyendo con el análisis y discusión de futuras investigaciones.

The objetive of this research was to conduct a review of blood lead levels in venezuelan children reported in the scientific articles published between the years 1993-2006. A documentary study was carried out, databases consulted were PubMed/MEDLINE, EBSCO, ProQuest, Scielo, REVENCYT; FUNDACID BC UC, using key word: children, levels of blood lead, review, Venezuela. Were collected in total 13 articles, 85% of these were descriptive. The largest proportion (39%) of studies reviewed were classified as environmental. The average of the average levels of blood lead reported in the studies was 12.61 ± 3.95 µg/dL, IC95% [10.23; 14.99 µg/dL]. In the 84.6% of investigations carried out in children whit blood lead were it was observed an average of blood lead higher to the allowable limit (10 µg/dL). This research could provide evidence on the blood lead levels observed in venezuelan children, helping with the analysis and discussion of future research.

Avaliação dos fatores de risco relacionados à exposição ao chumbo em crianças e adolescentes do Rio de Janeiro / Evaluation of risk factors related to lead exposure in children and adolescents from Rio de Janeiro

A importância do chumbo atmosférico na contaminação global do ambiente tem recebido crescente atenção científica. A principal forma de monitorização da exposição é biológica, mas a ambiental tem um papel importante, já que o ambiente é a principal fonte de exposição ao chumbo. O estudo transversal busca identificar fontes de contaminação e potenciais fatores de risco da exposição em 64 crianças de zero a dezesseis anos de uma comunidade economicamente desfavorecida do Rio de Janeiro. Foram determinadas as concentrações de chumbo em solo, água, poeira e ar e calculados os fatores de risco neurológico e carcinogênico de inalação e ingestão. O sangue coletado foi utilizado para análise de Pb-S, ALA-D por cento e genotipagem da ALA-D. O fator de risco neurológico observado foi 549 vezes superior à dose de referência para poeira e 554 vezes superior no caso de ingestão. O fator de risco carcinogênico para ingestão foi de quatro vezes. A média de Pb-S foi 5,6μg/dL e 40 por cento das crianças apresentaram valores de Pb-S acima do ponto de corte de 6μg/dL. A média de ALA-D por cento foi 40,3 por cento e foi observada correlação entre Pb-S e ALA-D por cento. O genótipo ALAD1-2 foi identificado em 10 por cento das crianças. Os resultados deste estudo permitirão o conhecimento da nossa realidade, subsidiando os órgãos de saúde pública e meio ambiente nas ações de controle e vigilância ambiental integrada

The importance of atmospheric lead in environmental global contamination is receiving increasing scientific attention. The main exposure monitoring approach is biological, but the environmental one has a key role, since the environment is the major source of exposure. The study aimed to identify the contamination sources and potential risk factors of the exposure in a 64 subject group formed by 0-16 years-old children from an economically deprived community in Rio de Janeiro. Lead concentrations in soil, water, dust and air were determined and neurological and carcinogenic risk factors for ingestion and inhalation were calculated. Blood samples were collected and used in the analysis of Pb-B, ALA-D percent and ALA-D genotyping. The observed neurological risk factor was 549 times higher than reference dose for dust and 554 times higher in the case of ingestion. The carcinogenic risk factor for ingestion was about 4 times. Mean Pb-B was 5.6μg/dL and 40 percent of the children presented Pb-B levels above the 6μg/dL cutoff value. Mean ALA-D percent was 40.3 percent and a correlation between Pb-B and ALA-D percent was observed. ALAD1-2 genotype was identified in 10 percent of the children. The results will allow the understanding of our reality, supporting public health and environment organizations to carry out control actions and all-encompassing environmental surveillance.

Plumbemia em trabalhadores da indústria de reciclagem de baterias automotivas da Grande Porto Alegre, RS / Blood lead levels in the battery recycling industry of the metropolitan region of Porto Alegre, RS

A reciclagem de baterias pode contaminar o ar, o solo e a água, não só no lugar de processamento, mas também nas regiões circunvizinhas, sendo que os resíduos permanecem no local mesmo após o término da atividade. No presente artigo descrevemos os resultados da avaliação da plumbemia em 53 operários que trabalhavam com reciclagem de baterias automotivas e em 53 indivíduos sem história de exposição. Os dados obtidos foram comparados e discutidos em relação às normas do Ministério do Trabalho (MT) e da Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). A plumbemia no sangue do grupo controle foi de 2,44±1,15 µg/dl e, no grupo exposto, de 59,43±28,34 µg/dl, sendo que 79,2 por cento dos indivíduos mostraram níveis acima do valor de referência (até 40 µg/dl). Estudos recentes recomendam estratégias para prevenir a intoxicação com chumbo: identificação, eliminação ou controle da fonte, monitoração da exposição e respectivos danos e um programa de recompra de baterias usadas das por parte da indústria de origem.

Battery recycling may contaminate soil, air and water not only at the processing site but also in the neighboring areas, inasmuch as the residues remain at the site even after the end of the activity. In the present article, we describe the results of plumbism evaluation in 53 individuals that work with car battery recycling and 53 individuals without history of lead exposure. The obtained data were compared and discussed according to the regulations of Brazilian Ministry of Labor and OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration). Blood lead levels in the control group were 2.44 ± 1.15 µg/dl and 59.43 ± 28.34 µg/dl in the exposed group. 79.2 percent of the individuals presented levels above the reference value (40 µg/dl). Recent studies recommend strategies to prevent lead intoxication: source identification, control or elimination, monitoring of environmental exposure and hazards and a buy-back program of used batteries by the industry of origin.