Sub-100 nm carriers by template polymerization for drug delivery applications.

Size-controlled drug delivery systems (DDSs) have gained significant attention in the field of pharmaceutical sciences due to their potential to enhance drug efficacy, minimize side effects, and improve patient compliance. This review provides a concise overview of the preparation method, advancements, and applications of size-controlled drug delivery systems focusing on the sub-100 nm size DDSs. The importance of tailoring the size for achieving therapeutic goals is briefly mentioned. We highlight the concept of "template polymerization", a well-established method in covalent polymerization that offers precise control over molecular weight. We demonstrate the utility of this approach in crafting a monolayer of a polymer around biomolecule templates such as DNA, RNA, and protein, achieving the generation of DDSs with sizes ranging from several tens of nanometers. A few representative examples of small-size DDSs that share a conceptual similarity to "template polymerization" are also discussed. This review concludes by briefly discussing the drug release behaviors and the future prospects of "template polymerization" for the development of innovative size-controlled drug delivery systems, which promise to optimize drug delivery precision, efficacy, and safety.

Identification of Germline Non-coding Deletions in XIAP Gene Causing XIAP Deficiency Reveals a Key Promoter Sequence.

PURPOSE: X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) deficiency, also known as the X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome of type 2 (XLP-2), is a rare immunodeficiency characterized by recurrent hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, splenomegaly, and inflammatory bowel disease. Variants in XIAP including missense, non-sense, frameshift, and deletions of coding exons have been reported to cause XIAP deficiency. We studied three young boys with immunodeficiency displaying XLP-2-like clinical features. No genetic variation in the coding exons of XIAP was identified by whole-exome sequencing (WES), although the patients exhibited a complete loss of XIAP expression. METHODS: Targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) of the entire locus of XIAP was performed on DNA samples from the three patients. Molecular investigations were assessed by gene reporter expression assays in HEK cells and CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing in primary T cells. RESULTS: NGS of XIAP identified three distinct non-coding deletions in the patients that were predicted to be driven by repetitive DNA sequences. These deletions share a common region of 839 bp that encompassed the first non-coding exon of XIAP and contained regulatory elements and marks specific of an active promoter. Moreover, we showed that among the 839 bp, the exon was transcriptionally active. Finally, deletion of the exon by CRISPR-Cas9 in primary cells reduced XIAP protein expression. CONCLUSIONS: These results identify a key promoter sequence contained in the first non-coding exon of XIAP. Importantly, this study highlights that sequencing of the non-coding exons that are not currently captured by WES should be considered in the genetic diagnosis when no variation is found in coding exons.

Absent X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein expression in T cell blasts and causal mutations including non-coding deletion.

BACKGROUND: X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) deficiency is one of inborn errors of immunity characterized by recurrent hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and refractory inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), mimicking Crohn's disease. The aim of this study is to make an accurate diagnosis of XIAP deficiency based on genetic and XIAP expression studies and to investigate endoscopic findings shared by patients with this disease. METHODS: Four male patients with recurrent hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and long-term refractory IBD were studied for the diagnosis of XIAP deficiency. Endoscopic findings of the four patients were also studied in parallel. RESULTS: These four patients were diagnosed with XIAP deficiency based on the absent XIAP expression in cultured T-cell blasts. Sequence analysis of the responsible gene, XIAP, demonstrated two novel nonsense mutations of p.Gln114X and p.Glu25X, and a previously reported nonsense mutation of p.Arg381X. Although no mutations in the coding region were detected in the fourth patient, further studies demonstrated a novel 2,199 bp deletion encompassing non-coding exon 1, presumably affecting transcription and stability of XIAP mRNA. All of the patients eventually underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, leading to a complete or partial remission of IBD. These four patients shared an endoscopic finding of multiple wide and longitudinal ulcers with straight and non-raised edge in the colon. CONCLUSIONS: X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein expression in T-cell blasts could facilitate the diagnosis of this disease, especially with causal mutations in non-coding regions.

A deep intronic mutation of c.1166-285 T > G in SLC46A1 is shared by four unrelated Japanese patients with hereditary folate malabsorption (HFM).

Hereditary folate malabsorption (HFM) is an autosomal recessive disease caused by mutations in SLC46A1 encoding the proton-coupled folate transporter (PCFT). HFM patients present with various clinical features including megaloblastic anemia, thrombocytopenia, combined immunodeficiency and neurodevelopmental disorders. In this study, we report the same deep intronic mutation of c.1166-285 T > G shared by four unrelated Japanese patients with HFM. This mutation was shown to generate a cryptic splice donor site for a 168-bp insertion of intron 3 sequences, leading to premature termination in the middle of this insertion. This mutation could be a founder mutation in the Japanese population, but also could be a hot-spot and could be present in undiagnosed HFM patients worldwide because of the difficulty to detect this mutation.

A heterozygous dominant-negative mutation in the coiled-coil domain of STAT1 is the cause of autosomal-dominant Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial diseases.

Heterozygous dominant-negative mutations of STAT1 are responsible for autosomal-dominant Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial diseases (AD-MSMD). So far, only 7 mutations have been previously described and are localized to 3 domains: the DNA-binding domain, the SH2 domain, and the tail segment. In this study, we demonstrated the first coiled-coil domain (CCD) mutation of c.749G>C, p.G250A (G250A) in STAT1 as a genetic cause of AD-MSMD in a patient with mycobacterial multiple osteomyelitis. This de novo heterozygous mutation was shown to have a dominant-negative effect on the gamma-activated sequence (GAS) transcriptional activity following IFN-γ stimulation, which could be attributable to the abolished phosphorylation of STAT1 from the wild-type (WT) allele. The three-dimensional structure of STAT1 revealed the G250 residue was located distant from a cluster of residues affected by gain-of-function mutations responsible for chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis.