Dispersive currents explain patterns of population connectivity in an ecologically and economically important fish.

How to identify the drivers of population connectivity remains a fundamental question in ecology and evolution. Answering this question can be challenging in aquatic environments where dynamic lake and ocean currents coupled with high levels of dispersal and gene flow can decrease the utility of modern population genetic tools. To address this challenge, we used RAD-Seq to genotype 959 yellow perch (Perca flavescens), a species with an ~40-day pelagic larval duration (PLD), collected from 20 sites circumscribing Lake Michigan. We also developed a novel, integrative approach that couples detailed biophysical models with eco-genetic agent-based models to generate "predictive" values of genetic differentiation. By comparing predictive and empirical values of genetic differentiation, we estimated the relative contributions for known drivers of population connectivity (e.g., currents, behavior, PLD). For the main basin populations (i.e., the largest contiguous portion of the lake), we found that high gene flow led to low overall levels of genetic differentiation among populations (F ST = 0.003). By far the best predictors of genetic differentiation were connectivity matrices that were derived from periods of time when there were strong and highly dispersive currents. Thus, these highly dispersive currents are driving the patterns of population connectivity in the main basin. We also found that populations from the northern and southern main basin are slightly divergent from one another, while those from Green Bay and the main basin are highly divergent (F ST = 0.11). By integrating biophysical and eco-genetic models with genome-wide data, we illustrate that the drivers of population connectivity can be identified in high gene flow systems.

Genomic and environmental influences on resilience in a cold-water fish near the edge of its range.

Small, isolated populations present a challenge for conservation. The dueling effects of selection and drift in a limited pool of genetic diversity make the responses of small populations to environmental perturbations erratic and difficult to predict. This is particularly true at the edge of a species range, where populations often persist at the limits of their environmental tolerances. Populations of cisco, Coregonus artedi, in inland lakes have experienced numerous extirpations along the southern edge of their range in recent decades, which are thought to result from environmental degradation and loss of cold, well-oxygenated habitat as lakes warm. Yet, cisco extirpations do not show a clear latitudinal pattern, suggesting that local environmental factors and potentially local adaptation may influence resilience. Here, we used genomic tools to investigate the nature of this pattern of resilience. We used restriction site-associated DNA capture (Rapture) sequencing to survey genomic diversity and differentiation in southern inland lake cisco populations and compared the frequency of deleterious mutations that potentially influence fitness across lakes. We also examined haplotype diversity in a region of the major histocompatibility complex involved in stress and immune system response. We correlated these metrics to spatial and environmental factors including latitude, lake size, and measures of oxythermal habitat and found significant relationships between genetic metrics and broad and local factors. High levels of genetic differentiation among populations were punctuated by a phylogeographic break and residual patterns of isolation-by-distance. Although the prevalence of deleterious mutations and inbreeding coefficients was significantly correlated with latitude, neutral and non-neutral genetic diversity were most strongly correlated with lake surface area. Notably, differences among lakes in the availability of estimated oxythermal habitat left no clear population genomic signature. Our results shed light on the complex dynamics influencing these isolated populations and provide valuable information for their conservation.

Big Data in Conservation Genomics: Boosting Skills, Hedging Bets, and Staying Current in the Field.

A current challenge in the fields of evolutionary, ecological, and conservation genomics is balancing production of large-scale datasets with additional training often required to handle such datasets. Thus, there is an increasing need for conservation geneticists to continually learn and train to stay up-to-date through avenues such as symposia, meetings, and workshops. The ConGen meeting is a near-annual workshop that strives to guide participants in understanding population genetics principles, study design, data processing, analysis, interpretation, and applications to real-world conservation issues. Each year of ConGen gathers a diverse set of instructors, students, and resulting lectures, hands-on sessions, and discussions. Here, we summarize key lessons learned from the 2019 meeting and more recent updates to the field with a focus on big data in conservation genomics. First, we highlight classical and contemporary issues in study design that are especially relevant to working with big datasets, including the intricacies of data filtering. We next emphasize the importance of building analytical skills and simulating data, and how these skills have applications within and outside of conservation genetics careers. We also highlight recent technological advances and novel applications to conservation of wild populations. Finally, we provide data and recommendations to support ongoing efforts by ConGen organizers and instructors-and beyond-to increase participation of underrepresented minorities in conservation and eco-evolutionary sciences. The future success of conservation genetics requires both continual training in handling big data and a diverse group of people and approaches to tackle key issues, including the global biodiversity-loss crisis.

Evidence for population genetic structure in two exploited Mekong River fishes across a natural riverine barrier.

Impacts of urban development on aquatic populations are often complex and difficult to ascertain, but population genetic analysis has allowed researchers to monitor and estimate gene flow in the context of existing and future hydroelectric projects. The Lower Mekong Basin is undergoing rapid hydroelectric development with around 50 completed and under-construction dams and 95 planned dams. The authors investigated the baseline genetic diversity of two exploited migratory fishes, the mud carp Henicorhynchus lobatus (five locations), and the rat-faced pangasiid catfish, Helicophagus leptorhynchus (two locations), in the Lower Mekong Basin using the genomic double digest restriction site-associated DNA (ddRAD) sequencing method. In both species, fish sampled upstream of Khone Falls were differentiated from those collected at other sites, and Ne estimates at the site above the falls were lower than those at other sites. This was the first study to utilize thousands of RAD-generated single nucleotide polymorphisms to indicate that the Mekong's Khone Falls are a potential barrier to gene flow for these two moderately migratory species. The recent completion of the Don Sahong dam across one of the only channels for migratory fishes through Khone Falls may further exacerbate signatures of isolation and continue to disrupt the migration patterns of regionally vital food fishes. In addition, H. lobatus populations downstream of Khone Falls, including the 3S Basin and Tonle Sap system, displayed robust connectivity. Potential obstruction of migration pathways between these river systems resulting from future dam construction may limit dispersal, which has led to elevated inbreeding rates and even local extirpation in other fragmented riverine species.

Diving in uncharted waters: An updated genetics toolkit highlights the challenges of polyploidy in landscape genomics analyses.

As molecular ecologists, we have by necessity become adept at working across computational platforms. A diverse community of scientists has developed a broad array of analytical resources spanning command line to graphical user interface across Linux, Mac, and Windows environments and a dizzying array of program-specific input formats. In light of this, we often explore our data like free divers - filling our lungs with air and descending for a short period of time into one part of our data set before resurfacing, reformatting, and preparing for our next analysis. In this issue of Molecular Ecology Resources, Meirmans (2020) presents an updated version of GenoDive, a program with a toolkit that provides users with the opportunity to stay a while and delve deeper into the diverse portfolio of information provided by a genomic data set. The comprehensive nature of GenoDive coupled with its unique capability to handle both diploid and polyploid data also provides an opportunity to reflect on the unevenness of resources available for the analysis of polyploid versus diploid data. Since new updates include the addition of plug-ins for genotype-environment association analyses, we limit the observations presented here to the common tools used for landscape genomics analyses.

Genotyping-by-sequencing illuminates high levels of divergence among sympatric forms of coregonines in the Laurentian Great Lakes.

Effective resource management depends on our ability to partition diversity into biologically meaningful units. Recent evolutionary divergence, however, can often lead to ambiguity in morphological and genetic differentiation, complicating the delineation of valid conservation units. Such is the case with the "coregonine problem," where recent postglacial radiations of coregonines into lacustrine habitats resulted in the evolution of numerous species flocks, often with ambiguous taxonomy. The application of genomics methods is beginning to shed light on this problem and the evolutionary mechanisms underlying divergence in these ecologically and economically important fishes. Here, we used restriction site-associated DNA (RAD) sequencing to examine genetic diversity and differentiation among sympatric forms in the Coregonus artedi complex in the Apostle Islands of Lake Superior, the largest lake in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Using 29,068 SNPs, we were able to clearly distinguish among the three most common forms for the first time, as well as identify putative hybrids and potentially misidentified specimens. Population assignment rates for these forms using our RAD data were 93%-100% with the only mis-assignments arising from putative hybrids, an improvement from 62% to 77% using microsatellites. Estimates of pairwise differentiation (F ST: 0.045-0.056) were large given the detection of hybrids, suggesting that reduced fitness of hybrid individuals may be a potential mechanism for the maintenance of differentiation. We also used a newly built C. artedi linkage map to look for islands of genetic divergence among forms and found widespread differentiation across the genome, a pattern indicative of long-term drift, suggesting that these forms have been reproductively isolated for a substantial amount of time. The results of this study provide valuable information that can be applied to develop well-informed management strategies and stress the importance of re-evaluating conservation units with genomic tools to ensure they accurately reflect species diversity.

Cryptic Lineages and a Population Dammed to Incipient Extinction? Insights into the Genetic Structure of a Mekong River Catfish.

An understanding of the genetic composition of populations across management boundaries is vital to developing successful strategies for sustaining biodiversity and food resources. This is especially important in ecosystems where habitat fragmentation has altered baseline patterns of gene flow, dividing natural populations into smaller subpopulations and increasing potential loss of genetic variation through genetic drift. River systems can be highly fragmented by dams built for flow regulation and hydropower. We used reduced-representation sequencing to examine genomic patterns in an exploited catfish, Hemibagrus spilopterus, in a hotspot of biodiversity and hydropower development-the Mekong River basin. Our results revealed the presence of 2 highly divergent coexisting genetic lineages which may be cryptic species. Within the lineage with the greatest sample sizes, pairwise FST values, principal component analysis, and a STRUCTURE analysis all suggest that long-distance migration is not common across the Lower Mekong Basin, even in areas where flood-pulse hydrology has limited genetic divergence. In tributaries, effective population size estimates were at least an order of magnitude lower than in the Mekong mainstream indicating these populations may be more vulnerable to perturbations such as human-induced fragmentation. Fish isolated upstream of several dams in one tributary exhibited particularly low genetic diversity, high amounts of relatedness, and a level of inbreeding (GIS = 0.51) that has been associated with inbreeding depression in other outcrossing species. Our results highlight the importance of assessing genetic structure and diversity in riverine fisheries populations across proposed dam development sites for the preservation of these critically important resources.

Genetic patterns in peripheral marine populations of the fusilier fish Caesio cuning within the Kuroshio Current.

AIM: Mayr's central-peripheral population model (CCPM) describes the marked differences between central and peripheral populations in genetic diversity, gene flow, and census size. When isolation leads to genetic divergence, these peripheral populations have high evolutionary value and can influence biogeographic patterns. In tropical marine species with pelagic larvae, powerful western-boundary currents have great potential to shape the genetic characteristics of peripheral populations at latitudinal extremes. We tested for the genetic patterns expected by the CCPM in peripheral populations that are located within the Kuroshio Current for the Indo-Pacific reef fish, Caesio cuning. METHODS: We used a panel of 2,677 SNPs generated from restriction site-associated DNA (RAD) sequencing to investigate genetic diversity, relatedness, effective population size, and spatial patterns of population connectivity from central to peripheral populations of C. cuning along the Kuroshio Current. RESULTS: Principal component and cluster analyses indicated a genetically distinct lineage at the periphery of the C. cuning species range and examination of SNPs putatively under divergent selection suggested potential for local adaptation in this region. We found signatures of isolation-by-distance and significant genetic differences between nearly all sites. Sites closest to the periphery exhibited increased within-population relatedness and decreased effective population size. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Despite the potential for homogenizing gene flow along the Kuroshio Current, peripheral populations in C. cuning conform to the predictions of the CCPM. While oceanography, habitat availability, and dispersal ability are all likely to shape the patterns found in C. cuning across this central-peripheral junction, the impacts of genetic drift and natural selection in increasing smaller peripheral populations appear to be probable influences on the lineage divergence found in the Ryukyu Islands.