Psychosocial impairment following mild blast-induced traumatic brain injury in rats.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with increased risk for mental health disorders, impacting post-injury quality of life and societal reintegration. TBI is also associated with deficits in psychosocial processing, defined as the cognitive integration of social and emotional behaviors, however little is known about how these deficits manifest and their contributions to post-TBI mental health. In this pre-clinical investigation using rats, a single mild blast TBI (mbTBI) induced impairment of psychosocial processing in the absence of confounding physical polytrauma, post-injury motor deficits, affective abnormalities, or deficits in non-social behavior. Impairment severity correlated with acute upregulations of a known oxidative stress metabolite, 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid (3-HPMA), in urine. Resting state fMRI alterations in the acute post-injury period implicated key brain regions known to regulate psychosocial behavior, including orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), which is congruent with our previous report of elevated acrolein, a marker of neurotrauma and 3-HPMA precursor, in this region following mbTBI. OFC of mbTBI-exposed rats demonstrated elevated mRNA expression of metabotropic glutamate receptors 1 and 5 (mGluR1/5) and injection of mGluR1/5-selective agonist in OFC of uninjured rats approximated mbTBI-induced psychosocial processing impairment, demonstrating a novel role for OFC in this psychosocial behavior. Furthermore, OFC may serve as a hotspot for TBI-induced disruption of psychosocial processing and subsequent mental health disorders.

Acrolein-mediated alpha-synuclein pathology involvement in the early post-injury pathogenesis of mild blast-induced Parkinsonian neurodegeneration.

Survivors of blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) have increased susceptibility to Parkinson's disease (PD), characterized by α-synuclein aggregation and the progressive degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Using an established bTBI rat model, we evaluated the changes of α-synuclein and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), known hallmarks of PD, and acrolein, a reactive aldehyde and marker of oxidative stress, with the aim of revealing key pathways leading to PD post-bTBI. Indicated in both animal models of PD and TBI, acrolein is likely a point of pathogenic convergence. Here we show that after a single mild bTBI, acrolein is elevated up to a week, systemically in urine, and in whole brain tissue, specifically the substantia nigra and striatum. Acrolein elevation is accompanied by heightened α-synuclein oligomerization, dopaminergic dysregulation, and acrolein/α-synuclein interaction in the same brain regions. We further show that acrolein can directly modify and oligomerize α-synuclein in vitro. Taken together, our data suggests acrolein likely plays an important role in inducing PD pathology following bTBI by encouraging α-synuclein aggregation. These results are expected to advance our understanding of the long-term post-bTBI pathological changes leading to the development of PD, and suggest intervention targets to curtail such pathology.

Systemic Acrolein Elevations in Mice With Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis and Patients With Multiple Sclerosis.

Demyelination and axonal injury are the key pathological processes in multiple sclerosis (MS), driven by inflammation and oxidative stress. Acrolein, a byproduct and instigator of oxidative stress, has been demonstrated as a neurotoxin in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. However, due to the invasive nature of acrolein detection using immunoblotting techniques, the investigation of acrolein in MS has been limited to animal models. Recently, detection of a specific acrolein-glutathione metabolite, 3-HPMA, has been demonstrated in urine, enabling the noninvasive quantification of acrolein for the first time in humans with neurological disorders. In this study, we have demonstrated similar elevated levels of acrolein in both urine (3-HPMA) and in spinal cord tissue (acrolein-lysine adduct) in mice with EAE, which can be reduced through systemic application of acrolein scavenger hydralazine. Furthermore, using this approach we have demonstrated an increase of 3-HPMA in both the urine and serum of MS patients relative to controls. It is expected that this noninvasive acrolein detection could facilitate the investigation of the role of acrolein in the pathology of MS in human. It may also be used to monitor putative therapies aimed at suppressing acrolein levels, reducing severity of symptoms, and slowing progression as previously demonstrated in animal studies.

Cognition based bTBI mechanistic criteria; a tool for preventive and therapeutic innovations.

Blast-induced traumatic brain injury has been associated with neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. To date, although damage due to oxidative stress appears to be important, the specific mechanistic causes of such disorders remain elusive. Here, to determine the mechanical variables governing the tissue damage eventually cascading into cognitive deficits, we performed a study on the mechanics of rat brain under blast conditions. To this end, experiments were carried out to analyse and correlate post-injury oxidative stress distribution with cognitive deficits on a live rat exposed to blast. A computational model of the rat head was developed from imaging data and validated against in vivo brain displacement measurements. The blast event was reconstructed in silico to provide mechanistic thresholds that best correlate with cognitive damage at the regional neuronal tissue level, irrespectively of the shape or size of the brain tissue types. This approach was leveraged on a human head model where the prediction of cognitive deficits was shown to correlate with literature findings. The mechanistic insights from this work were finally used to propose a novel protective device design roadmap and potential avenues for therapeutic innovations against blast traumatic brain injury.

Acrolein-mediated neuronal cell death and alpha-synuclein aggregation: Implications for Parkinson's disease.

Growing evidence suggests that oxidative stress plays a critical role in neuronal destruction characteristic of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the molecular mechanisms of oxidative stress-mediated dopaminergic cell death are far from clear. In the current investigation, we tested the hypothesis that acrolein, an oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation (LPO) product, is a key factor in the pathogenesis of PD. Using a combination of in vitro, in vivo, and cell free models, coupled with anatomical, functional, and behavioral examination, we found that acrolein was elevated in 6-OHDA-injected rats, and behavioral deficits associated with 6-OHDA could be mitigated by the application of the acrolein scavenger hydralazine, and mimicked by injection of acrolein in healthy rats. Furthermore, hydralazine alleviated neuronal cell death elicited by 6-OHDA and another PD-related toxin, rotenone, in vitro. We also show that acrolein can promote the aggregation of alpha-synuclein, suggesting that alpha-synuclein self-assembly, a key pathological phenomenon in human PD, could play a role in neurotoxic effects of acrolein in PD models. These studies suggest that acrolein is involved in the pathogenesis of PD, and the administration of anti-acrolein scavengers such as hydralazine could represent a novel strategy to alleviate tissue damage and motor deficits associated with this disease.

Pathological correlations between traumatic brain injury and chronic neurodegenerative diseases.

Traumatic brain injury is among the most common causes of death and disability in youth and young adults. In addition to the acute risk of morbidity with moderate to severe injuries, traumatic brain injury is associated with a number of chronic neurological and neuropsychiatric sequelae including neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. However, despite the high incidence of traumatic brain injuries and the established clinical correlation with neurodegeneration, the causative factors linking these processes have not yet been fully elucidated. Apart from removal from activity, few, if any prophylactic treatments against post-traumatic brain injury neurodegeneration exist. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the pathophysiological mechanisms of traumatic brain injury and neurodegeneration in order to identify potential factors that initiate neurodegenerative processes. Oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and glutamatergic excitotoxicity have previously been implicated in both secondary brain injury and neurodegeneration. In particular, reactive oxygen species appear to be key in mediating molecular insult in neuroinflammation and excitotoxicity. As such, it is likely that post injury oxidative stress is a key mechanism which links traumatic brain injury to increased risk of neurodegeneration. Consequently, reactive oxygen species and their subsequent byproducts may serve as novel fluid markers for identification and monitoring of cellular damage. Furthermore, these reactive species may further serve as a suitable therapeutic target to reduce the risk of post-injury neurodegeneration and provide long term quality of life improvements for those suffering from traumatic brain injury.

Exogenous Acrolein intensifies sensory hypersensitivity after spinal cord injury in rat.

Acrolein, an α,ß-unsaturated aldehyde associated with oxidative stress, is also a major toxic component of tobacco cigarette smoke, which has been reported in the clinic to coincide with the exacerbation of neuropathic pain after SCI. Previous reports have shown that acrolein involvement in spinal cord injury (SCI) is crucial to the development and persistence of neuropathic pain. Through the activation and upregulation of the transient receptor protein ankyrin-1 (TRPA1) cation channel, acrolein is capable of sensitizing the central nervous system in the acute and chronic stages of SCI. Here, we report that the acute or delayed nasal exposure of acrolein, apart from cigarette smoke but at concentrations similar to that found in cigarette smoke, resulted in increased neuropathic pain behaviors in a rat model of contusion SCI. We also found that this hyperalgesia occurred concurrently with an augmentation in systemic acrolein, detected by an acrolein-glutathione metabolite in the urine. The application of an acrolein scavenger, phenelzine, was shown to reduce the hyperalgesic effect of acrolein inhalation. The previously determined ability of acrolein to bind to and activate the TRPA1 channel and elicit algesic responses may be a mechanism of the phenomenon seen in this study. Upon the exposure to actual cigarette smoke after SCI, intensified neuropathic pain behaviors were also observed and persisted for at least 1week after the cessation of the exposure period. Taken together, these results indicate that cigarette smoke, through mechanisms involving acrolein, poses a threat to the vulnerable CNS after SCI and can contribute to neuropathic pain. This investigation also provides further evidence for the potential utility of acrolein scavengers as a therapeutic strategy in SCI-resultant neuropathic pain.

Mitigation of sensory and motor deficits by acrolein scavenger phenelzine in a rat model of spinal cord contusive injury.

Currently there are no effective therapies available for the excruciating neuropathic pain that develops after spinal cord injuries (SCI). As such, a great deal of effort is being put into the investigation of novel therapeutic targets that can alleviate this pain. One such target is acrolein, a highly reactive aldehyde produced as a byproduct of oxidative stress and inflammation that is capable of activating the transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) cation channel, known to be involved in the transmission and propagation of chronic neuropathic pain. One anti-acrolein agent, hydralazine, has already been shown to reduce neuropathic pain behaviors and offer neuroprotection after SCI. This study investigates another acrolein scavenger, phenelzine, for its possible role of alleviating sensory hypersensitivity through acrolein suppression. The results show that phenelzine is indeed capable of attenuating neuropathic pain behaviors in acute, delayed, and chronic administration schedules after injury in a rat model of SCI. In addition, upon the comparison of hydralazine to phenelzine, both acrolein scavengers displayed a dose-dependent response in the reduction of acrolein in vivo. Finally, phenelzine proved capable of providing locomotor function recovery and neuroprotection of spinal cord tissue when administered immediately after injury for 2 weeks. These results indicate that phenelzine may be an effective treatment for neuropathic pain after SCI and likely a viable alternative to hydralazine. We have shown that phenelzine can attenuate neuropathic pain behavior in acute, delayed, and chronic administration in post-SCI rats. This was accompanied by a dose-dependent reduction in an acrolein metabolite in urine and an acrolein adduct in spinal cord tissue, and the suppression of TRPA1 over-expression in central and peripheral locations post-trauma. Acrolein scavenging might be a novel therapeutic strategy to reduce post-SCI neuropathic pain.

Structural and biochemical abnormalities in the absence of acute deficits in mild primary blast-induced head trauma.

OBJECTIVE: Blast-induced neurotrauma (BINT), if not fatal, is nonetheless potentially crippling. It can produce a wide array of acute symptoms in moderate-to-severe exposures, but mild BINT (mBINT) is characterized by the distinct absence of acute clinical abnormalities. The lack of observable indications for mBINT is particularly alarming, as these injuries have been linked to severe long-term psychiatric and degenerative neurological dysfunction. Although the long-term sequelae of BINT are extensively documented, the underlying mechanisms of injury remain poorly understood, impeding the development of diagnostic and treatment strategies. The primary goal of this research was to recapitulate primary mBINT in rodents in order to facilitate well-controlled, long-term investigations of blast-induced pathological neurological sequelae and identify potential mechanisms by which ongoing damage may occur postinjury. METHODS: A validated, open-ended shock tube model was used to deliver blast overpressure (150 kPa) to anesthetized rats with body shielding and head fixation, simulating the protective effects of military-grade body armor and isolating a shock wave injury from confounding systemic injury responses, head acceleration, and other elements of explosive events. Evans Blue-labeled albumin was used to visualize blood-brain barrier (BBB) compromise at 4 hours postinjury. Iba1 staining was used to visualize activated microglia and infiltrating macrophages in areas of peak BBB compromise. Acrolein, a potent posttraumatic neurotoxin, was quantified in brain tissue by immunoblotting and in urine through liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry at 1, 2, 3, and 5 days postinjury. Locomotor behavior, motor performance, and short-term memory were assessed with open field, rotarod, and novel object recognition (NOR) paradigms at 24 and 48 hours after the blast. RESULTS: Average speed, maximum speed, and distance traveled in an open-field exploration paradigm did not show significant differences in performance between sham-injured and mBINT rats. Likewise, rats with mBINT did not exhibit deficits in maximum revolutions per minute or total run time in a rotarod paradigm. Short-term memory was also unaffected by mBINT in an NOR paradigm. Despite lacking observable motor or cognitive deficits in the acute term, blast-injured rats displayed brain acrolein levels that were significantly elevated for at least 5 days, and acrolein's glutathione-reduced metabolite, 3-HPMA, was present in urine for 2 days after injury. Additionally, mBINT brain tissue demonstrated BBB damage 4 hours postinjury and colocalized neuroinflammatory changes 24 hours postinjury. CONCLUSIONS: This model highlights mBINT's potential for underlying detrimental physical and biochemical alterations despite the lack of apparent acute symptoms and, by recapitulating the human condition, represents an avenue for further examining the pathophysiology of mBINT. The sustained upregulation of acrolein for days after injury suggests that acrolein may be an upstream player potentiating ongoing postinjury damage and neuroinflammation. Ultimately, continued research with this model may lead to diagnostic and treatment mechanisms capable of preventing or reducing the severity of long-term neurological dysfunction following mBINT.

Acrolein contributes to TRPA1 up-regulation in peripheral and central sensory hypersensitivity following spinal cord injury.

Acrolein, an endogenous aldehyde, has been shown to be involved in sensory hypersensitivity after rat spinal cord injury (SCI), for which the pathogenesis is unclear. Acrolein can directly activate a pro-algesic transient receptor protein ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) channel that exists in sensory neurons. Both acrolein and TRPA1 mRNA are elevated post SCI, which contributes to the activation of TRPA1 by acrolein and consequently, neuropathic pain. In the current study, we further showed that, post-SCI elevation of TRPA1 mRNA exists not only in dorsal root ganglias but also in both peripheral (paw skin) and central endings of primary afferent nerves (dorsal horn of spinal cord). This is the first indication that pain signaling can be over-amplified in the peripheral skin by elevated expressions of TRPA1 following SCI, in addition over-amplification previously seen in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia. Furthermore, we show that acrolein alone, in the absence of physical trauma, could lead to the elevation of TRPA1 mRNA at various locations when injected to the spinal cord. In addition, post-SCI elevation of TRPA1 mRNA could be mitigated using acrolein scavengers. Both of these attributes support the critical role of acrolein in elevating TRPA1 expression through gene regulation. Taken together, these data indicate that acrolein is likely a critical causal factor in heightening pain sensation post-SCI, through both the direct binding of TRPA1 receptor, and also by boosting the expression of TRPA1. Finally, our data also further support the notion that acrolein scavenging may be an effective therapeutic approach to alleviate neuropathic pain after SCI. We propose that the trauma-mediated elevation of acrolein causes neuropathic pain through at least two mechanisms: acrolein stimulates the production of transient receptor protein ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) in both central and peripheral locations, and it activates TRPA1 channels directly. Therefore, acrolein appears to be a critical factor in the pathogenesis of post-SCI sensory hypersensitivity, becoming a novel therapeutic target to relieve both acute and chronic post-SCI neuropathic pain.

Acute systemic accumulation of acrolein in mice by inhalation at a concentration similar to that in cigarette smoke.

Cigarette smoke is an important environmental factor associated with a wide array of public health concerns. Acrolein, a component of tobacco smoke and a known toxin to various cell types, may be a key pathological factor mediating the adverse effects linked with tobacco smoke. Although acrolein is known to accumulate in the respiratory system after acute nasal exposure, it is not clear if it accumulates systemically, and less is known in the nervous system. The aim of this study was to assess the degree of acrolein accumulation in the circulation and in the spinal cord following acute acrolein inhalation in mice. Using a laboratory-fabricated inhalation chamber, we found elevated urinary 3-HPMA, an acrolein metabolite, and increased acrolein adducts in the spinal cord after weeks of nasal exposure to acrolein at a concentration similar to that in tobacco smoke. The data indicated that acrolein is absorbed into the circulatory system and some enters the nervous system. It is expected that these findings may facilitate further studies to probe the pathological role of acrolein in the nervous system resulting from smoke and other external sources.

A facile synthesis of novel bis-(indolyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazoles as potent cytotoxic agents.

A recipe for potency: A novel series of bis(indolyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazoles was prepared from the corresponding hydrazide-hydrazones via iodobenzene diacetate-promoted oxidative cyclization. Evaluation against a panel of human cancer cell lines revealed that some derivatives possess potent cytotoxicity with tunable selectivity for different cancer types.

Alternative splicing of AMPA subunits in prefrontal cortical fields of cynomolgus monkeys following chronic ethanol self-administration.

Functional impairment of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex underlies deficits in executive control that characterize addictive disorders, including alcohol addiction. Previous studies indicate that alcohol alters glutamate neurotransmission and one substrate of these effects may be through the reconfiguration of the subunits constituting ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) complexes. Glutamatergic transmission is integral to cortico-cortical and cortico-subcortical communication and alcohol-induced changes in the abundance of the receptor subunits and/or their splice variants may result in critical functional impairments of prefrontal cortex in alcohol dependence. To this end, the effects of chronic ethanol self-administration on glutamate receptor ionotropic AMPA (GRIA) subunit variant and kainate (GRIK) subunit mRNA expression were studied in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) of male cynomolgus monkeys. In DLPFC, total AMPA splice variant expression and total kainate receptor subunit expression were significantly decreased in alcohol drinking monkeys. Expression levels of GRIA3 flip and flop and GRIA4 flop mRNAs in this region were positively correlated with daily ethanol intake and blood ethanol concentrations (BEC) averaged over the 6 months prior to necropsy. In OFC, AMPA subunit splice variant expression was reduced in the alcohol treated group. GRIA2 flop mRNA levels in this region were positively correlated with daily ethanol intake and BEC averaged over the 6 months prior to necropsy. Results from these studies provide further evidence of transcriptional regulation of iGluR subunits in the primate brain following chronic alcohol self-administration. Additional studies examining the cellular localization of such effects in the framework of primate prefrontal cortical circuitry are warranted.

Aerobic exercise attenuates reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior and associated neuroadaptations in the prefrontal cortex.

BACKGROUND: Exercise has recently been suggested as an attractive alternative to pharmacotherapy for treating drug addiction. The goal of this study was to determine, using an animal model, whether aerobic exercise may block reinstatement of cocaine-seeking and its underlying neurobiology (i.e., neuronal signaling in the prefrontal cortex). METHODS: Following acquisition and 10 days of 24-hour access to cocaine (1.5 mg/kg/infusion) or saline under a discrete trial procedure (four infusions/hr), rats began a 14-day abstinence period. During this period, rats were either given access to a running-wheel for 2-hours each day or placed in similar boxes with the wheel locked. Cocaine-seeking was assessed following the 14th day of abstinence using a within-session extinction/cue-induced reinstatement procedure. Neuronal activity was assessed by examining phosphorylated levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (pERK) using Western blot analysis. RESULTS: Wheel running reduced cocaine-seeking during both extinction and reinstatement. Cocaine-seeking was positively associated with pERK levels in the prefrontal cortex. Although pERK levels were not different among saline controls, in the cocaine group, pERK levels were significantly decreased by exercise. CONCLUSIONS: Aerobic exercise may reduce relapse vulnerability by preventing the increase in cocaine-seeking and associated neuroadaptations in the prefrontal cortex that develop over an abstinence period.

Incubation of nicotine seeking is associated with enhanced protein kinase A-regulated signaling of dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa in the insular cortex.

A recent clinical study demonstrated that damage to the insular cortex can disrupt tobacco addiction. The neurobiological mechanisms for this effect are not yet understood. In this study we used an animal model of nicotine addiction to examine the possibility that changes in insular cortex levels of dopamine (DA)- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa (DARPP-32), a phosphoprotein enriched in DA neurons containing DA D1 receptors, may be associated with changes in vulnerability to nicotine addiction. Once rats acquired self-administration, they were given unlimited access to nicotine (0.01 mg/kg/infusion) for 23 h/day for a total of 10 days. Each infusion was paired with a visual cue (stimulus light) and auditory cue (sound of pump). Nicotine seeking, as assessed under a cue-induced reinstatement paradigm, and markers of DARPP-32 signaling, as assessed using western blot analysis, were examined in separate groups of rats at two different abstinent intervals: 1 and 7 days. Consistent with findings with other drugs of abuse, rats in the 7-day abstinence group took longer to extinguish and responded at higher levels during reinstatement testing as compared with rats in the 1-day reinstatement group. Relative to saline controls, rats in the 7-day but not the 1-day abstinence group had higher levels of DARPP-32 phosphorylated at the protein kinase A site in the insular cortex. These results demonstrate incubation of drug seeking following extended access to nicotine self-administration and suggest that enhanced protein kinase A signaling in the insular cortex via phosphorylation of DARPP-32 at Thr34 is associated with this effect.

Ethanol self-administration modulation of NMDA receptor subunit and related synaptic protein mRNA expression in prefrontal cortical fields in cynomolgus monkeys.

BACKGROUND: Functional impairment of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex underlies deficits in executive control that characterize addictive disorders, including alcohol addiction. Previous studies indicate that alcohol alters glutamate neurotransmission and one substrate of these effects may be through the reconfiguration of the subunits constituting ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) complexes. Glutamatergic transmission is integral to cortico-cortical and cortico-subcortical communication, and alcohol-induced changes in the abundance of the receptor subunits and/or their splice variants may result in critical functional impairments of prefrontal cortex in the alcohol-addicted state. METHODS AND RESULTS: The effects of chronic ethanol self-administration on glutamate receptor ionotropic NMDA (GRIN), as well as GRIN1 splice variant mRNA expression was studied in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC; Area 13), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC; Area 46) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC; Area 24) of male cynomolgus monkeys. Chronic ethanol self-administration resulted in significant changes in the expression of NMDA subunit mRNA expression in the DLPFC and OFC, but not the ACC. In DLPFC, the overall expression of NMDA subunits was significantly decreased in ethanol treated monkeys. Slight but significant changes were observed for synaptic associated protein 102 kD (SAP102) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) mRNAs. In OFC, the NMDAR1 variant GRIN1-1 was reduced while GRIN1-2 was increased. Furthermore, no significant changes in GFAP protein levels were observed in either the DLPFC or OFC. CONCLUSION: Results from these studies provide the first demonstration of posttranscriptional regulation of iGluR subunits in the primate brain following long-term ethanol self-administration. Furthermore, changes in these transcripts do not appear to reflect changes in glial activation or loss. Further studies examining the expression and cellular localization of subunit proteins and receptor pharmacology would shed more light on the findings reported here.

Ethanol-induced regulation of GABA-A subunit mRNAs in prefrontal fields of cynomolgus monkeys.

BACKGROUND: Recent evidence indicates that functional impairment of the orbital and medial fields of the prefrontal cortex may underlie the deficits in executive control of behavior that characterize addictive disorders, including alcohol addiction. Moreover, previous studies have indicated that alcohol alters GABA neurotransmission and one substrate of these effects may be through the reconfiguration of the subunits constituting the GABA(A) receptor complex. Given that GABAergic transmission has an integral role in cortical processing, influencing local and interregional communication, understanding alcohol-induced alterations in GABA(A) receptors in prefrontal fields of the primate brain may provide insight into the functional impairment of these brain regions in the alcohol-addicted state and extend our understanding of the molecular consequences of long-term use in these critical brain regions. METHODS AND RESULTS: To address this problem, the effects of chronic ethanol self-administration in male cynomolgus monkeys on GABA(A) receptor subunit mRNA expression was studied in 3 frontal cortical fields: orbitofrontal cortex (OFC; area 13), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC; area 24), and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC; area 46). Quantitative polymerase chain reaction revealed significant alterations in GABA(A) subunit mRNA expression in the OFC and DLPFC but not in the ACC. Specifically, expression of the alpha2, alpha4, beta1, beta3, and gamma1 to gamma3 subunit mRNAs was significantly less in the OFC, whereas the expression of beta1, beta2, gamma1, and delta subunit mRNAs was less in the DLPFC of alcohol-treated monkeys. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that ethanol-induced alterations in GABA(A) function may be due to alterations in GABA(A) subunit mRNA levels and subunit-specific alterations are selective to particular cortical fields.