An angle-scanned cryogenic Fabry-Pérot interferometer for far-infrared astronomy.

The sensitivity of state-of-the-art superconducting far-infrared detectors used in conjunction with cryogenically cooled space telescopes and instrumentation is such that spectroscopic observations are generally limited by photon noise from the astronomical source or by galactic foreground or zodiacal emission within the field-of-view. Therefore, an instrument design that restricts the spectral bandpass viewed by the detector must be employed. One method of achieving background limited, high resolution spectroscopy is to combine a high resolution component such as a Fabry-Pérot interferometer (FPI) with a lower resolution, post-dispersing system, such as a grating spectrometer, the latter serving to restrict the spectral bandpass. The resonant wavelength of an FPI is most often tuned by changing the spacing or medium between the parallel reflecting plates of the etalon. In this paper, we present a novel design for an FPI in which the wavelength is tuned by scanning the angle of incidence on a high refractive index etalon. This concept simplifies the cryomechanical design, actuation, and metrology. The first results from the realized instrument are presented and compared with theory. The effects on the spectral response as a function of the incident angle have been simulated and shown to agree well with the observation.

A dual-port THz Time Domain Spectroscopy System optimized for recovery of a sample's Jones matrix.

We describe the design, build and characterization of a novel two-output port configuration for a THz-Time Domain Spectroscopy (TDS) system. By introducing a tilted THz ultra-broadband polarizer, we split the THz beam in two orthogonal polarization detector branches. The probe laser is similarly split (with an optical polarizer) replicating the detection chain to obtain two independent orthogonal polarization detection units. We describe the system's performance highlighting some of the advantages of this system in one of its two modes of operation: optimized polarimetry for Jones matrix measurements. A bi-refringent sapphire standard was measured to confirm its capabilities and assess the performance of the system showing good agreement with existing literature data.

Dual focus polarisation splitting lens.

We have successfully designed and measured a unique polarisation splitting lens which focuses the orthogonal linear polarisations side-by-side in the lens focal plane. This concept can find application in situations where there is limited space for the beam splitters and focusing optics that are required for incoherent detectors.

Experimental realization of an achromatic magnetic mirror based on metamaterials.

Our work relates to the use of metamaterials engineered to realize a metasurface approaching the exotic properties of an ideal object not observed in nature, a "magnetic mirror." Previous realizations were based on resonant structures that implied narrow bandwidths and large losses. The working principle of our device is ideally frequency-independent, it does not involve resonances and it does not rely on a specific technology. The performance of our prototype, working at millimeter wavelengths, has never been achieved before and it is superior to any other device reported in the literature, both in the microwave and optical regions. The device inherently has large bandwidth (144%), low losses (<1%), and is almost independent of incidence angle and polarization state, and thus approaches the behavior of an ideal magnetic mirror. Applications of magnetic mirrors range from low-profile antennas, absorbers to optoelectronic devices. Our device can be realized using different technologies to operate in other spectral regions.

A passive terahertz video camera based on lumped element kinetic inductance detectors.

We have developed a passive 350 GHz (850 µm) video-camera to demonstrate lumped element kinetic inductance detectors (LEKIDs)--designed originally for far-infrared astronomy--as an option for general purpose terrestrial terahertz imaging applications. The camera currently operates at a quasi-video frame rate of 2 Hz with a noise equivalent temperature difference per frame of ∼0.1 K, which is close to the background limit. The 152 element superconducting LEKID array is fabricated from a simple 40 nm aluminum film on a silicon dielectric substrate and is read out through a single microwave feedline with a cryogenic low noise amplifier and room temperature frequency domain multiplexing electronics.

A cryogenic rotation stage with a large clear aperture for the half-wave plates in the Spider instrument.

We describe the cryogenic half-wave plate rotation mechanisms built for and used in Spider, a polarization-sensitive balloon-borne telescope array that observed the cosmic microwave background at 95 GHz and 150 GHz during a stratospheric balloon flight from Antarctica in January 2015. The mechanisms operate at liquid helium temperature in flight. A three-point contact design keeps the mechanical bearings relatively small but allows for a large (305 mm) diameter clear aperture. A worm gear driven by a cryogenic stepper motor allows for precise positioning and prevents undesired rotation when the motors are depowered. A custom-built optical encoder system monitors the bearing angle to an absolute accuracy of ±0.1(∘). The system performed well in Spider during its successful 16 day flight.

Multi-octave metamaterial reflective half-wave plate for millimeter and sub-millimeter wave applications.

The quasi-optical modulation of linear polarization at millimeter and sub-millimeter wavelengths can be achieved by using rotating half-wave plates (HWPs) in front of polarization-sensitive detectors. Large operational bandwidths are required when the same device is meant to work simultaneously across different frequency bands. Previous realizations of half-wave plates, ranging from birefringent multi-plates to mesh-based devices, have achieved bandwidths of the order of 100%. Here we present the design and experimental characterization of a reflective HWP able to work across bandwidths of the order of 150%. The working principle of the novel device is completely different from any previous realization, and it is based on the different phase-shift experienced by two orthogonal polarizations reflecting, respectively, off an electric conductor and an artificial magnetic conductor.

A new artificial material approach for flat THz frequency lenses.

Stacked layers of metal meshes embedded in a dielectric substrate are routinely used for providing spectral selection at THz frequencies. Recent work has shown that particular geometries allow the refractive index to be tuned to produce practical artificial materials. Here we show that by spatially grading in the plane of the mesh we can manufacture a Graded Index (GrIn) thin flat lens optimized for use at THz frequencies. Measurements on a prototype lens show we are able to obtain the parabolic profile of a Woods type lens which is dependent only on the mesh parameters. This technique could realize other exotic optical devices.

Demonstration of spectral and spatial interferometry at THz frequencies.

A laboratory prototype spectral-spatial interferometer has been constructed to demonstrate the feasibility of the double-Fourier technique at far infrared (FIR) wavelengths (0.15-1 THz). It is planned to use this demonstrator to investigate and validate important design features and data-processing methods for future astronomical FIR interferometer instruments. In building this prototype, we have had to address several key technologies to provide an end-end system demonstration of this double-Fourier interferometer. We report on the first results taken when viewing single-slit and double-slit sources at the focus of a large collimator used to simulate real sources at infinity. The performance of the prototype instrument for these specific field geometries is analyzed to compare with the observed interferometric fringes and to demonstrate image reconstruction capabilities.

The effect of a scanning flat fold mirror on a cosmic microwave background B-mode experiment.

We investigate the possibility of using a flat-fold beam steering mirror for a cosmic microwave background B-mode experiment. An aluminium flat-fold mirror is found to add ∼0.075% polarization, which varies in a scan synchronous way. Time-domain simulations of a realistic scanning pattern are performed, and the effect on the power-spectrum illustrated, and a possible method of correction applied.

Polypropylene embedded metal mesh broadband achromatic half-wave plate for millimeter wavelengths.

We describe a novel multilayered metal-mesh achromatic half-wave plate (HWP) for use in astronomical polarimetric instruments. The HWP is designed to operate across the frequency range from 125 to 250 GHz. The wave plate is manufactured from 12 layers of thin film metallic inductive and capacitive grids patterned onto polypropylene sheets, which are then bonded together using a hot-pressing technique. Transmission line modeling and three-dimensional electromagnetic simulations are used to optimize the parameters of the metal-mesh patterns and to evaluate their optical properties. A prototype HWP has been fabricated, and its performance is characterized in a polarizing Fourier transform spectrometer. The device performance is consistent with the modeling, although the measured differential phase shift for two orthogonal polarizations is lower than expected. This difference is likely to result from imperfect patterning of individual layers and misalignment of the grids during manufacture.

Performance of three- and five-stack achromatic half-wave plates at millimeter wavelengths.

We study the performance of achromatic half-wave plates (AHWPs) as a function of the detection bandwidth of a power detector operating in the millimeter wave band and the spectral shape of the incident radiation. We focus particular attention on the extraction of the degree of incident polarization and its orientation angle from the intensity measured as a function of AHWP rotation angle, which we call the IVA (intensity versus angle). We describe the formalism to extract the two incident polarization parameters. We use this formalism to quantify the phase offset of the IVA and point to potential systematic errors in the extraction of this offset in cases where the incident spectrum is not sufficiently well known. We quantify the phase offset and modulation efficiency as a function of the relative angles between the plates in the stack and find that high modulation efficiency can be achieved with alignment accuracy of a few degrees. We present measurements of the spectral response of an AHWP made with five plates. The measurements predict a modulation efficiency that is higher than 98% for three bands centered at 150, 250, and 410 GHz.

Recovering the frequency dependent modulation function of the achromatic half-wave plate for POL-2: the SCUBA-2 polarimeter.

A spectro-polarimetric method is presented to allow the recovery of the frequency dependent polarization modulation function for an achromatic half-wave plate. We show how the non ideal nature of the modulator can be characterized for removal of both instrument effects and variations related to the source spectral index.

Over half of the far-infrared background light comes from galaxies at z >or= 1.2.

Submillimetre surveys during the past decade have discovered a population of luminous, high-redshift, dusty starburst galaxies. In the redshift range 1 or= 1.2 accounting for 70% of it. As expected, at the longest wavelengths the signal is dominated by ultraluminous galaxies at z > 1.

Metal-mesh achromatic half-wave plate for use at submillimeter wavelengths.

A metal-mesh achromatic half-wave plate (HWP) has been designed, manufactured, and tested for potential use in millimeter and submillimeter astronomical instruments. The prototype device presented here is based on a 12-grid Shatrow [IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 43, 109 (1995)] recipe to operate over the frequency range of 120-180 GHz. Transmission line modeling and finite-element analysis [Ansoft HFSS website: http://www.ansoft.com/hfss/] were used to optimize the design geometrical parameters in terms of the device transmission, reflection, absorption, phase-shift, and cross-polarization as a function of frequency. The resulting prototype device was constructed and characterized using incoherent radiation from a polarizing Fourier transform spectrometer to explore its frequency and polarization behavior. These measurements are shown to be in excellent agreement with the models. Lists of the achieved HWP performance characteristics are reported.

Simple method for antireflection coating ZnSe in the 20 microm wavelength range.

We present a simple, inexpensive, and effective method of applying antireflection coatings to zinc selenide windows designed to operate in the thermal infrared wavelength region.

Electrical and optical measurements on the first SCUBA-2 prototype 1280 pixel submillimeter superconducting bolometer array.

SCUBA-2 is a submillimeter camera being built for the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii. Bringing CCD style imaging to the submillimeter for the first time, with over 10000 pixels, it will provide a revolutionary improvement in sensitivity and mapping speed. We present results of the first tests on a prototype 1280 pixel SCUBA-2 subarray; the full instrument will be made up of eight such subarrays. The array is made up of transition edge sensor (TES) detectors, with Mo/Cu bilayers as the sensing element. To keep the number of wires reasonable, a multiplexed readout is used. Unlike previous TES arrays, an in-focal plane multiplexer configuration is used, in which the multiplexing elements are located beneath each pixel. To achieve the required performance, the detectors are operated at a temperature of approximately 120 mK. We describe the results of a basic electrical and optical characterization of the array, demonstrating that it is fully operational. Noise measurements were made on several pixels and gave a noise equivalent power below 2.5 x 10(-17) W HZ(-0.5), within the requirements for SCUBA-2. The construction of the testbed used to carry out these measurements is also described.

Prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics affect mineral absorption, bone mineral content, and bone structure.

Several studies in animals and humans have shown positive effects of nondigestible oligosaccharides (NDO) on mineral absorption and metabolism and bone composition and architecture. These include inulin, oligofructose, fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, soybean oligosaccharide, and also resistant starches, sugar alcohols, and difructose anhydride. A positive outcome of dietary prebiotics is promoted by a high dietary calcium content up to a threshold level and an optimum amount and composition of supplemented prebiotics. There might be an optimum composition of fructooligosaccharides with different chain lengths (synergy products). The efficacy of dietary prebiotics depends on chronological age, physiological age, menopausal status, and calcium absorption capacity. There is evidence for an independent probiotic effect on facilitating mineral absorption. Synbiotics, i.e., a combination of probiotics and prebiotics, can induce additional effects. Whether a low content of habitual NDO would augment the effect of dietary prebiotics or synbiotics remains to be studied. The underlying mechanisms are manifold: increased solubility of minerals because of increased bacterial production of short-chain fatty acids, which is promoted by the greater supply of substrate; an enlargement of the absorption surface by promoting proliferation of enterocytes mediated by bacterial fermentation products, predominantly lactate and butyrate; increased expression of calcium-binding proteins; improvement of gut health; degradation of mineral complexing phytic acid; release of bone-modulating factors such as phytoestrogens from foods; stabilization of the intestinal flora and ecology, also in the presence of antibiotics; stabilization of the intestinal mucus; and impact of modulating growth factors such as polyamines. In conclusion, prebiotics are the most promising but also best investigated substances with respect to a bone-health-promoting potential, compared with probiotics and synbiotics. The results are more prominent in animal models, where more studies have been performed, than in human studies, where experimental conditions are more difficult to control.

Achromatic half-wave plate for submillimeter instruments in cosmic microwave background astronomy: modeling and simulation.

We adopted an existing formalism and modified it to simulate, with high precision, the transmission, reflection, and absorption of multiple-plate birefringent devices as a function of frequency. To validate the model, we use it to compare the measured properties of an achromatic five-plate device with a broadband antireflection coating to expectations derived from the material optical constants and its geometric configuration. The half-wave plate presented here is observed to perform well with a phase shift variation of < 2 degrees from the ideal 180 degrees over a bandwidth of Deltav/v approximately 1 at millimeter wavelengths. This formalism represents a powerful design tool for birefringent polarization modulators and enables its optical properties to be specified with high accuracy.

Achromatic half-wave plate for submillimeter instruments in cosmic microwave background astronomy: experimental characterization.

An achromatic half-wave plate (HWP) to be used in millimeter cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarization experiments has been designed, manufactured, and tested. The design is based on the 5-plates Pancharatnam recipe and it works in the frequency range 85-185 GHz. A model has been used to predict the transmission, reflection, absorption, and phase shift as a function of frequency. The HWP has been tested by using coherent radiation from a back-wave oscillator to investigate its modulation efficiency and with incoherent radiation from a polarizing Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS) to explore its frequency behavior. The FTS measurements have been fitted with an optical performance model which is in excellent agreement with the data. A detailed analysis of the data also allows a precise determination of the HWP fast and slow axes in the frequency band of operation. A list of the HWP performance characteristics is reported including estimates of its cross polarization.