Predicting treatment resistance in positive and negative symptom domains from first episode psychosis: Development of a clinical prediction model.

BACKGROUND: Treatment resistance (TR) in schizophrenia may be defined by the persistence of positive and/or negative symptoms despite adequate treatment. Whilst previous investigations have focused on positive symptoms, negative symptoms are highly prevalent, impactful, and difficult to treat. In the current study we aimed to develop easily employable prediction models to predict TR in positive and negative symptom domains from first episode psychosis (FEP). METHODS: Longitudinal cohort data from 1027 individuals with FEP was utilised. Using a robust definition of TR, n = 51 (4.97 %) participants were treatment resistant in the positive domain and n = 56 (5.46 %) treatment resistant in the negative domain 12 months after first presentation. 20 predictor variables, selected by existing evidence and availability in clinical practice, were entered into two LASSO regression models. We estimated the models using repeated nested cross-validation (NCV) and assessed performance using discrimination and calibration measures. RESULTS: The prediction model for TR in the positive domain showed good discrimination (AUC = 0.72). Twelve predictor variables (male gender, cannabis use, age, positive symptom severity, depression and academic and social functioning) were retained by each outer fold of the NCV procedure, indicating importance in prediction of the outcome. However, our negative domain model failed to discriminate those with and without TR, with results only just over chance (AUC = 0.56). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment resistance of positive symptoms can be accurately predicted from FEP using routinely collected baseline data, however prediction of negative domain-TR remains a challenge. Detailed negative symptom domains, clinical data, and biomarkers should be considered in future longitudinal studies.

Five-year illness trajectories across racial groups in the UK following a first episode psychosis.

PURPOSE: Psychosis disproportionally affects ethnic minority groups in high-income countries, yet evidence of disparities in outcomes following intensive early intervention service (EIS) for First Episode Psychosis (FEP) is less conclusive. We investigated 5-year clinical and social outcomes of young people with FEP from different racial groups following EIS care. METHOD: Data were analysed from the UK-wide NIHR SUPEREDEN study. The sample at baseline (n = 978) included White (n = 750), Black (n = 71), and Asian (n = 157) individuals, assessed during the 3 years of EIS, and up to 2 years post-discharge (n = 296; Black [n = 23]; Asian [n = 52] and White [n = 221]). Outcome trajectories were modelled for psychosis symptoms (positive, negative, and general), functioning, and depression, using linear mixed effect models (with random intercept and slopes), whilst controlling for social deprivation. Discharge service was also explored across racial groups, 2 years following EIS. RESULTS: Variation in linear growth over time was accounted for by racial group status for psychosis symptoms-positive (95% CI [0.679, 1.235]), negative (95% CI [0.315, 0.783]), and general (95% CI [1.961, 3.428])-as well as for functioning (95% CI [11.212, 17.677]) and depressive symptoms (95% CI [0.261, 0.648]). Social deprivation contributed to this variance. Black individuals experienced greater levels of deprivation (p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.187, 0.624]). Finally, there was a greater likelihood for Asian (OR = 3.04; 95% CI [2.050, 4.498]) and Black individuals (OR = 2.47; 95% CI [1.354, 4.520]) to remain in secondary care by follow-up. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest variations in long-term clinical and social outcomes following EIS across racial groups; social deprivation contributed to this variance. Black and Asian individuals appear to make less improvement in long-term recovery and are less likely to be discharged from mental health services. Replication is needed in large, complete data, to fully understand disparities and blind spots to care.

Structure and stability of symptoms in first episode psychosis: a longitudinal network approach.

Early psychosis is characterised by heterogeneity in illness trajectories, where outcomes remain poor for many. Understanding psychosis symptoms and their relation to illness outcomes, from a novel network perspective, may help to delineate psychopathology within early psychosis and identify pivotal targets for intervention. Using network modelling in first episode psychosis (FEP), this study aimed to identify: (a) key central and bridge symptoms most influential in symptom networks, and (b) examine the structure and stability of the networks at baseline and 12-month follow-up. Data on 1027 participants with FEP were taken from the National EDEN longitudinal study and used to create regularised partial correlation networks using the 'EBICglasso' algorithm for positive, negative, and depressive symptoms at baseline and at 12-months. Centrality and bridge estimations were computed using a permutation-based network comparison test. Depression featured as a central symptom in both the baseline and 12-month networks. Conceptual disorganisation, stereotyped thinking, along with hallucinations and suspiciousness featured as key bridge symptoms across the networks. The network comparison test revealed that the strength and bridge centralities did not differ significantly between the two networks (C = 0.096153; p = 0.22297). However, the network structure and connectedness differed significantly from baseline to follow-up (M = 0.16405, p = <0.0001; S = 0.74536, p = 0.02), with several associations between psychosis and depressive items differing significantly by 12 months. Depressive symptoms, in addition to symptoms of thought disturbance (e.g. conceptual disorganisation and stereotyped thinking), may be examples of important, under-recognized treatment targets in early psychosis, which may have the potential to lead to global symptom improvements and better recovery.

The impact of manic symptoms in first-episode psychosis: Findings from the UK National EDEN study.

OBJECTIVE: The extant literature is inconsistent over whether manic symptoms in first-episode psychosis (FEP) impact on its development and trajectory. This study addressed the following: (1) Does Duration of Untreated Illness (DUI) and Duration of Untreated Psychosis (DUP) differ between FEP patients with and without manic symptoms? (2) Do manic symptoms in FEP have an impact on time to remission over 1 year? METHODS: We used data from the National EDEN study, a longitudinal cohort of patients with FEP accessing early intervention services (EIS) in England, which measured manic, positive and negative psychotic symptoms, depression and functioning at service entry and 1 year. Data from 913 patients with FEP (639 without manic symptoms, 237 with manic symptoms) were analysed using both general linear modelling and survival analysis. RESULTS: Compared to FEP patients without manic symptoms, those with manic symptoms had a significantly longer DUI, though no difference in DUP. At baseline, people with manic symptoms had higher levels of positive and negative psychotic symptoms, depression and worse functioning. At 12 months, people with manic symptoms had significantly poorer functioning and more positive psychotic symptoms. The presence of manic symptoms delayed time to remission over 1 year. There was a 19% reduced rate of remission for people with manic symptoms compared to those without. CONCLUSIONS: Manic symptoms in FEP are associated with delays to treatment. This poorer trajectory persists over 1 year. They appear to be a vulnerable and under-recognised group for poor outcome and need more focussed early intervention treatment.

Prevalence of treatment resistance and clozapine use in early intervention services.

BACKGROUND: Treatment resistance causes significant burden in psychosis. Clozapine is the only evidence-based pharmacologic intervention available for people with treatment-resistant schizophrenia; current guidelines recommend commencement after two unsuccessful trials of standard antipsychotics. AIMS: This paper aims to explore the prevalence of treatment resistance and pathways to commencement of clozapine in UK early intervention in psychosis (EIP) services. METHOD: Data were taken from the National Evaluation of the Development and Impact of Early Intervention Services study (N = 1027) and included demographics, medication history and psychosis symptoms measured by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) at baseline, 6 months and 12 months. Prescribing patterns and pathways to clozapine were examined. We adopted a strict criterion for treatment resistance, defined as persistent elevated positive symptoms (a PANSS positive score ≥16, equating to at least two items of at least moderate severity), across three time points. RESULTS: A total of 143 (18.1%) participants met the definition of treatment resistance of having continuous positive symptoms over 12 months, despite treatment in EIP services. Sixty-one (7.7%) participants were treatment resistant and eligible for clozapine, having had two trials of standard antipsychotics; however, only 25 (2.4%) were prescribed clozapine over the 12-month study period. Treatment-resistant participants were more likely to be prescribed additional antipsychotic medication and polypharmacy, instead of clozapine. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalent treatment resistance was observed in UK EIP services, but prescription of polypharmacy was much more common than clozapine. Significant delays in the commencement of clozapine may reflect a missed opportunity to promote recovery in this critical period.

Effect of delaying treatment of first-episode psychosis on symptoms and social outcomes: a longitudinal analysis and modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Delayed treatment for first episodes of psychosis predicts worse outcomes. We hypothesised that delaying treatment makes all symptoms more refractory, with harm worsening first quickly, then more slowly. We also hypothesised that although delay impairs treatment response, worse symptoms hasten treatment, which at presentation mitigates the detrimental effect of treatment delay on symptoms. METHODS: In this longitudinal analysis and modelling study, we included two longitudinal cohorts of patients with first-episode psychosis presenting to English early intervention services from defined catchments: NEDEN (recruiting 1003 patients aged 14-35 years from 14 services between Aug 1, 2005, and April 1, 2009) and Outlook (recruiting 399 patients aged 16-35 years from 11 services between April 1, 2006, and Feb 28, 2009). Patients were assessed at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months with the Positive and Negative Symptom Scale (PANSS), Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia, Mania Rating Scale, Insight Scale, and Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale. Regression was used to compare different models of the relationship between duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) and total symptoms at 6 months. Growth curve models of symptom subscales tested predictions arising from our hypotheses. FINDINGS: We included 948 patients from the NEDEN study and 332 patients from the Outlook study who completed baseline assessments and were prescribed dopamine antagonist antipsychotics. For both cohorts, the best-fitting models were logarithmic, describing a curvilinear relationship of DUP to symptom severity: longer DUP predicted reduced treatment response, but response worsened more slowly as DUP lengthened. Increasing DUP by ten times predicted reduced improvement in total symptoms (ie, PANSS total) by 7·339 (95% CI 5·762 to 8·916; p<0·0001) in NEDEN data and 3·846 (1·689 to 6·003; p=0·0005) in Outlook data. This was true of treatment response for all symptom types. Nevertheless, longer DUP was not associated with worse presentation for any symptoms except depression in NEDEN (coefficients 0·099 [95% CI 0·033 to 0·164]; p=0·0028 in NEDEN and 0·007 [-0·081 to 0·095]; p=0·88 in Outlook). INTERPRETATION: Long DUP was associated with reduced treatment response across subscales, consistent with a harmful process upstream of individual symptoms' mechanisms; response appeared to worsen quickly at first, then more slowly. These associations underscore the importance of rapid access to a comprehensive range of treatments, especially in the first weeks after psychosis onset. FUNDING: UK Department of Health, National Institute of Health Research, and Medical Research Council.

Lived experiences of negative symptoms in first-episode psychosis: A qualitative secondary analysis.

AIM: Exploring how negative symptoms are experienced and understood by individuals with lived experience of psychosis has the potential to offer insights into the complex psychosocial processes underlying negative symptom presentations. The aim of the current study was to investigate lived experiences of negative symptoms through secondary analysis of interviews conducted with individuals recovering from first-episode psychosis. METHOD: Transcripts of in-depth interviews with participants (n = 24) recruited from Early Intervention in Psychosis services were analysed thematically with a focus on participants' experiences and personal understandings of features corresponding to the negative symptoms construct. RESULTS: Descriptions of reductions in expression, motivation and sociability were common features of participants' accounts. Several participants described the experience of having difficulty interacting as like being a "zombie". Some participants experienced diminished capacity for emotion, thought or drive as underlying these experiences. However, participants typically attributed reductions in expression, motivation and sociability to medication side-effects, lack of confidence or active avoidance intended to protect them from rejection or ridicule, sometimes linked to internalized stigma. CONCLUSIONS: Personal accounts of experiences of reduced expression, motivation and sociability during first-episode psychosis highlight the personal meaningfulness and role of agency in these features, challenging the framing of negative symptoms as passive manifestations of diminished capacity.

Duration of untreated psychosis and clinical outcomes of first episode psychosis: An observational and an instrumental variables analysis.

AIM: Duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) is considered as a key prognostic variable in psychosis. Yet, it is unclear whether a longer DUP causes worse outcomes or whether reported associations have alternative explanations. METHODS: Data from 2 cohorts of patients with first episode psychosis were used (n = 2134). Measures of DUP were assessed at baseline and outcomes at 12 months. Regression models were used to investigate the associations between DUP and outcomes. We also investigated whether any associations were replicated using instrumental variables (IV) analysis to reduce the effect of residual confounding and measurement bias. RESULTS: There were associations between DUP per 1-year increase and positive psychotic symptoms (7.0% in symptom score increase 95% confidence interval (CI) 4.0%, 10.0%, P < .001), worse recovery (risk difference [RD] 0.78, 95%, CI 0.68, 0.83, P < .001) and worse global functioning (0.62 decrease in functioning score 95% CI -1.19, -0.04, P = .035). There was no evidence of an association with negative psychotic symptoms (1.0%, 95%, CI -2.0%, 5.0%, P = .455). The IV analysis showed weaker evidence of associations in the same direction between DUP per 1-year increase and positive psychotic symptoms, recovery and global functioning. However, there was evidence of an inverse association with negative psychotic symptoms (decrease of 15.0% in symptom score 95% CI -26.0%, -3.0%, P = .016). CONCLUSIONS: We have confirmed previous findings of a positive association between positive psychotic symptoms, global functioning and recovery and DUP using regression analysis. IV analysis shows some support for these findings. Future investigation using IV analysis should be repeated in large data sets.

Short-term outcome of first episode delusional disorder in an early intervention population.

BACKGROUND: Previous evidence suggests that delusional disorder has a later onset and better functional outcomes compared to schizophrenia. However, studies have not examined longitudinal outcomes in a first episode population, where confounding factors may be adjusted for. METHODS: A nested case control study was designed within the National EDEN study; a cohort of 1027 first episode psychosis patients. Patients with a baseline diagnosis of delusional disorder (n = 48) were compared with schizophrenia (n = 262) at 6 and 12 months with respect to symptomatic and functional outcomes. Regression analysis was used to adjust for possible confounders. RESULTS: Delusional disorder patients had a shorter duration of untreated psychosis compared to schizophrenia but were similar in other baseline characteristics. At baseline, delusional disorder patients had lower symptom scores but higher function scores compared to those with schizophrenia. At 12 months the differences persisted for symptoms scores but not overall function scores. After adjusting for baseline score, age and duration of untreated psychosis, differences between the groups remained significant only for Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANNS) negative, general and total scores and recovery rates. There were no differences in changes in outcomes scores. CONCLUSIONS: Delusional disorder in a first episode psychosis population presents with less severe symptoms, higher recovery rates and better functioning than schizophrenia, but at 12 months differences are ameliorated when adjusting for baseline differences.

Amisulpride augmentation of clozapine for treatment-refractory schizophrenia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: A second antipsychotic is commonly added to clozapine to treat refractory schizophrenia, notwithstanding the limited evidence to support such practice. METHODS: The efficacy and adverse effects of this pharmacological strategy were examined in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, 12-week randomized trial of clozapine augmentation with amisulpride, involving 68 adults with treatment-resistant schizophrenia and persistent symptoms despite a predefined trial of clozapine. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences between the amisulpride and placebo groups on the primary outcome measure (clinical response defined as a 20% reduction in total Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale score) or other mental state measures. However, the trial under recruited and was therefore underpowered to detect differences in the primary outcome, meaning that acceptance of the null hypothesis carries an increased risk of type II error. The findings suggested that amisulpride-treated participants were more likely to fulfil the clinical response criterion, odds ratio 1.17 (95% confidence interval 0.40-3.42) and have a greater reduction in negative symptoms, but these numerical differences were not statistically significant and only evident at 12 weeks. A significantly higher proportion of participants in the amisulpride group had at least one adverse event compared with the control group (p = 0.014), and these were more likely to be cardiac symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment for more than 6 weeks may be required for an adequate trial of clozapine augmentation with amisulpride. The greater side-effect burden associated with this treatment strategy highlights the need for safety and tolerability monitoring, including vigilance for indicators of cardiac abnormalities, when it is used in either a clinical or research setting.

Carers' and service users' experiences of early intervention in psychosis services: implications for care partnerships.

AIM: To explore carers' and service users' experiences of UK Early Intervention Services following referral for first-episode psychosis. METHODS: Thirty-two semi-structured interviews (16 interviews with service users and 16 corresponding interviews with their carers) were completed and analysed. RESULTS: Carers spoke retrospectively and prospectively by framing their accounts into the periods before and since their engagement with Early Intervention Services. Desperation was evident as emotive experiences were recalled prior to referral. Relief then emerged as carers described support and engagement with key workers. Hope and optimism for the service user's prognosis and life trajectory were also expressed.Service users described similar positive experiences of Early Intervention Services and the support and insight they had gained through their relationships with key workers. They were however less focused on accounts of desperation and relief and more immersed in their current understanding and attempts to normalize their experiences of first-episode psychosis. Prognosis and future trajectories were only discussed tentatively. CONCLUSION: Communication and 'partnerships' with service users and carers are essential for effective service engagement, delivery of care and the reduction in relapse following first-episode psychosis. This study highlights how key workers from Early Intervention Services are appropriately valued and situated to develop such relationships. Findings also reveal that service users' and carers' focus and expectations of recovery vary during the early stages of engagement with services. How key workers manage awareness and communication around such differing expectations is a crucial consideration for maintaining the 'partnerships' necessary for effective service provision.

Cost-effectiveness of early intervention services for psychosis and fidelity to national policy implementation guidance.

AIM: Early intervention services (EIS) for psychosis are being implemented, internationally. It is important to learn from established examples and define the components and intensity of services that provide good value for money. This study aims to assess the cost-effectiveness of EIS according to how closely they adhered to the recommendations of the English Department of Health 2001 Policy Implementation Guide (PIG). METHODS: EIS from the National Eden Study were assessed using a measure of fidelity to the PIG that rated the presence or absence of 64 recommended items relating to team structure and practice. EIS were then classified into three groups: those with fidelity of 75-80%, 81-90% and 91-95%. Patient-level resource use and outcomes were measured 1 year following inception into the service; costs were calculated and combined with quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained. RESULTS: At a threshold of £20 000 per QALY, the 81-90% fidelity group had a 56.3% likelihood of being the most cost-effective option followed by 75-80% fidelity at 35.8% and 91-95% fidelity group (7.9%). CONCLUSIONS: The results from England suggest that striving to maximize fidelity may not be warranted, but that dropping below a certain level of fidelity may result in inefficient use of resources.

Social recovery therapy in combination with early intervention services for enhancement of social recovery in patients with first-episode psychosis (SUPEREDEN3): a single-blind, randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Provision of early intervention services has increased the rate of social recovery in patients with first-episode psychosis; however, many individuals have continuing severe and persistent problems with social functioning. We aimed to assess the efficacy of early intervention services augmented with social recovery therapy in patients with first-episode psychosis. The primary hypothesis was that social recovery therapy plus early intervention services would lead to improvements in social recovery. METHODS: We did this single-blind, phase 2, randomised controlled trial (SUPEREDEN3) at four specialist early intervention services in the UK. We included participants who were aged 16-35 years, had non-affective psychosis, had been clients of early intervention services for 12-30 months, and had persistent and severe social disability, defined as engagement in less than 30 h per week of structured activity. Participants were randomly assigned (1:1), via computer-generated randomisation with permuted blocks (sizes of four to six), to receive social recovery therapy plus early intervention services or early intervention services alone. Randomisation was stratified by sex and recruitment centre (Norfolk, Birmingham, Lancashire, and Sussex). By necessity, participants were not masked to group allocation, but allocation was concealed from outcome assessors. The primary outcome was time spent in structured activity at 9 months, as measured by the Time Use Survey. Analysis was by intention to treat. This trial is registered with ISRCTN, number ISRCTN61621571. FINDINGS: Between Oct 1, 2012, and June 20, 2014, we randomly assigned 155 participants to receive social recovery therapy plus early intervention services (n=76) or early intervention services alone (n=79); the intention-to-treat population comprised 154 patients. At 9 months, 143 (93%) participants had data for the primary outcome. Social recovery therapy plus early intervention services was associated with an increase in structured activity of 8·1 h (95% CI 2·5-13·6; p=0·0050) compared with early intervention services alone. No adverse events were deemed attributable to study therapy. INTERPRETATION: Our findings show a clinically important benefit of enhanced social recovery on structured activity in patients with first-episode psychosis who received social recovery therapy plus early intervention services. Social recovery therapy might be useful in improving functional outcomes in people with first-episode psychosis, particularly in individuals not motivated to engage in existing psychosocial interventions targeting functioning, or who have comorbid difficulties preventing them from doing so. FUNDING: National Institute for Health Research.

Amisulpride augmentation in clozapine-unresponsive schizophrenia (AMICUS): a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised trial of clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness.

BACKGROUND: When treatment-refractory schizophrenia shows an insufficient response to a trial of clozapine, clinicians commonly add a second antipsychotic, despite the lack of robust evidence to justify this practice. OBJECTIVES: The main objectives of the study were to establish the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of augmentation of clozapine medication with a second antipsychotic, amisulpride, for the management of treatment-resistant schizophrenia. DESIGN: The study was a multicentre, double-blind, individually randomised, placebo-controlled trial with follow-up at 12 weeks. SETTINGS: The study was set in NHS multidisciplinary teams in adult psychiatry. PARTICIPANTS: Eligible participants were people aged 18-65 years with treatment-resistant schizophrenia unresponsive, at a criterion level of persistent symptom severity and impaired social function, to an adequate trial of clozapine monotherapy. INTERVENTIONS: Interventions comprised clozapine augmentation over 12 weeks with amisulpride or placebo. Participants received 400 mg of amisulpride or two matching placebo capsules for the first 4 weeks, after which there was a clinical option to titrate the dosage of amisulpride up to 800 mg or four matching placebo capsules for the remaining 8 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome measure was the proportion of 'responders', using a criterion response threshold of a 20% reduction in total score on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. RESULTS: A total of 68 participants were randomised. Compared with the participants assigned to placebo, those receiving amisulpride had a greater chance of being a responder by the 12-week follow-up (odds ratio 1.17, 95% confidence interval 0.40 to 3.42) and a greater improvement in negative symptoms, although neither finding had been present at 6-week follow-up and neither was statistically significant. Amisulpride was associated with a greater side effect burden, including cardiac side effects. Economic analyses indicated that amisulpride augmentation has the potential to be cost-effective in the short term [net saving of between £329 and £2011; no difference in quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs)] and possibly in the longer term. LIMITATIONS: The trial under-recruited and, therefore, the power of statistical analysis to detect significant differences between the active and placebo groups was limited. The economic analyses indicated high uncertainty because of the short duration and relatively small number of participants. CONCLUSIONS: The risk-benefit of amisulpride augmentation of clozapine for schizophrenia that has shown an insufficient response to a trial of clozapine monotherapy is worthy of further investigation in larger studies. The size and extent of the side effect burden identified for the amisulpride-clozapine combination may partly reflect the comprehensive assessment of side effects in this study. The design of future trials of such a treatment strategy should take into account that a clinical response may be not be evident within the 4- to 6-week follow-up period usually considered adequate in studies of antipsychotic treatment of acute psychotic episodes. Economic evaluation indicated the need for larger, longer-term studies to address uncertainty about the extent of savings because of amisulpride and impact on QALYs. The extent and nature of the side effect burden identified for the amisulpride-clozapine combination has implications for the nature and frequency of safety and tolerability monitoring of clozapine augmentation with a second antipsychotic in both clinical and research settings. TRIAL REGISTRATION: EudraCT number 2010-018963-40 and Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN68824876. FUNDING: This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 21, No. 49. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

Prevalence and management of diabetes in residential aged care facilities in north-east Victoria, Australia.

BACKGROUND: Managing diabetes in residential aged care facilities (RACFs) presents challenges to general practitioners (GPs) as the incidence of the disease increases. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this article is to describe the prevalence and management of diabetes in RACFs in north-east Victoria. METHODS: The method used for this study was a cross-sectional audit of medical files. RESULTS: Ten RACFs were invited and agreed to participate, giving a sample of 593 residents. Diabetes prevalence was 18.2% (n = 108). Half of the residents with diabetes had received a glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) test in the previous six months. Of these residents, half had an HbA1c result of 8%. The frequency of hypoglycaemic events was found to be 10%. Hyperglycaemic episodes (HbA1C >10%) occurred in 69% of residents with diabetes; 21% had hyperglycaemic episodes when defined by levels greater than those set by the resident's GP. Diabetes-related unscheduled hospitalisations was found to be 6.5%, while diabetes-related general practice visits was 23%. DISCUSSION: The prevalence of diabetes in the RACFs was higher than previously reported in rural Victoria. Practice variance from evidence-based guidelines may be contributing to unplanned hospitalisations and increased acute general practice visits.

The course of negative symptom in first episode psychosis and the relationship with social recovery.

AIMS: To investigate trajectories of negative symptoms during the first 12months of treatment for first episode psychosis (FEP), their predictors and relationship to social recovery. METHOD: 1006 participants were followed up for 12months following acceptance into Early Intervention in Psychosis services. Negative symptom trajectories were modelled using latent class growth analysis (LCGA) and predictors of trajectories examined using multinomial regression. Social recovery trajectories - also modelled using LCGA - of members of each negative symptom trajectory were ascertained and the relationship between negative symptom and social recovery trajectories examined. RESULTS: Four negative symptom trajectories were identified: Minimal Decreasing (63.9%), Mild Stable (13.5%), High Decreasing (17.1%) and High Stable (5.4%). Male gender and family history of non-affective psychosis predicted stably high negative symptoms. Poor premorbid adolescent adjustment, family history of non-affective psychosis and baseline depression predicted initially high but decreasing negative symptoms. Members of the Mild Stable, High Stable and High Decreasing classes were more likely to experience stably low functioning than the Minimal Decreasing class. CONCLUSIONS: Distinct negative symptom trajectories are evident in FEP. Only a small subgroup present with persistently high levels of negative symptoms. A substantial proportion of FEP patients with elevated negative symptoms at baseline will achieve remission of these symptoms within 12months. However, elevated negative symptoms at baseline, whether or not they remit, are associated with poor social recovery, suggesting targeted interventions for service users with elevated baseline negative symptoms may help improve functional outcomes.

Cannabis Use Is Associated With Increased Psychotic Symptoms and Poorer Psychosocial Functioning in First-Episode Psychosis: A Report From the UK National EDEN Study.

OBJECTIVE: The use of cannabis during the early stage of psychosis has been linked with increased psychotic symptoms. This study aimed to examine the use of cannabis in the 12 months following a first-episode of psychosis (FEP) and the link with symptomatic course and outcome over 1 year post psychosis onset. DESIGN AND SETTING: One thousand twenty-seven FEP patients were recruited upon inception to specialized early intervention services (EIS) for psychosis in the United Kingdom. Participants completed assessments at baseline, 6 and 12 months. RESULTS: The results indicate that the use of cannabis was significantly associated with increased severity of psychotic symptoms, mania, depression and poorer psychosocial functioning. Continued use of cannabis following the FEP was associated with poorer outcome at 1 year for Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale total score, negative psychotic symptoms, depression and psychosocial functioning, an effect not explained by age, gender, duration of untreated psychosis, age of psychosis onset, ethnicity or other substance use. CONCLUSION: This is the largest cohort study of FEP patients receiving care within EIS. Cannabis use, particularly "continued use," was associated with poorer symptomatic and functional outcome during the FEP. The results highlight the need for effective and early intervention for cannabis use in FEP.

Investigating trajectories of social recovery in individuals with first-episode psychosis: a latent class growth analysis.

BACKGROUND: Social disability is a hallmark of severe mental illness yet individual differences and factors predicting outcome are largely unknown. AIM: To explore trajectories and predictors of social recovery following a first episode of psychosis (FEP). METHOD: A sample of 764 individuals with FEP were assessed on entry into early intervention in psychosis (EIP) services and followed up over 12 months. Social recovery profiles were examined using latent class growth analysis. RESULTS: Three types of social recovery profile were identified: Low Stable (66%), Moderate-Increasing (27%), and High-Decreasing (7%). Poor social recovery was predicted by male gender, ethnic minority status, younger age at onset of psychosis, increased negative symptoms, and poor premorbid adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: Social disability is prevalent in FEP, although distinct recovery profiles are evident. Where social disability is present on entry into EIP services it can remain stable, highlighting a need for targeted intervention.

Layers of listening: qualitative analysis of the impact of early intervention services for first-episode psychosis on carers' experiences.

BACKGROUND: Early intervention services (EIS) comprise low-stigma, youth-friendly mental health teams for young people undergoing first-episode psychosis (FEP). Engaging with the family of the young person is central to EIS policy and practice.AimsBy analysing carers' accounts of their daily lives and affective challenges during a relative's FEP against the background of wider research into EIS, this paper explores relationships between carers' experiences and EIS. METHOD: Semi-structured longitudinal interviews with 80 carers of young people with FEP treated through English EIS. RESULTS: Our data suggest that EIS successfully aid carers to support their relatives, particularly through the provision of knowledge about psychosis and medications. However, paradoxical ramifications of these user-focused engagements also emerge; they risk leaving carers' emotions unacknowledged and compounding an existing lack of help-seeking. CONCLUSIONS: By focusing on EIS's engagements with carers, this paper draws attention to an urgent broader question: as a continuing emphasis on care outside the clinic space places family members at the heart of the care of those with severe mental illness, we ask: who can, and should, support carers, and in what ways?

Comparing time use in individuals at different stages of psychosis and a non-clinical comparison group.

Social functioning difficulties are a common and disabling feature of psychosis and have also been identified in the prodromal phase. However, debate exists about how such difficulties should be defined and measured. Time spent in structured activity has previously been linked to increased psychological wellbeing in non-clinical samples and may provide a useful way of assessing social functioning in clinical settings. The current study compared hours in structured activity, assessed with the Time Use Survey, in three clinical groups at different stages of psychosis: individuals with at-risk mental states (N=199), individuals with first-episode psychosis (N=878), and individuals with delayed social recovery following the remission of psychotic symptoms (N=77). Time use in the three clinical groups was also compared with norms from an age-matched non-clinical group (N=5686) recruited for the Office for National Statistics UK 2000 Time Use Survey. Cutoff scores for defining social disability and recovery were examined. All three clinical groups spent significantly fewer hours per week in structured activity than individuals in the non-clinical group. Reduced activity levels were observed before the onset of psychosis in individuals with at-risk mental states. Additional reductions in activity were observed in the first-episode psychosis and delayed recovery groups compared to the at-risk mental state group. Assessing time spent in structured activity provides a useful way to assess social disability and recovery across the spectrum of psychosis.