4-Hydroxynonenal induces Nrf2-mediated UCP3 upregulation in mouse cardiomyocytes.

4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) is a highly cytotoxic product of lipid peroxidation. Nevertheless, at low concentrations, it is able to mediate cell signaling and to activate protective pathways, including that of the transcription factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2). In addition, HNE activates uncoupling proteins (UCPs), mitochondrial inner membrane proteins that mediate uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and have been proposed to protect against oxidative stress. It is not known, however, whether HNE might induce UCP expression via Nrf2 to cause mitochondrial uncoupling. We investigated the effects of HNE on UCP3 expression in mouse cardiomyocytes and the involvement of Nrf2. HNE induced the nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 and enhanced UCP3 expression, effects prevented by the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine. ChIP assays indicated that Nrf2 bound to the Ucp3 promoter after HNE treatment, increasing its expression. Cardiomyocytes treated with Nrf2- or UCP3-specific siRNA were less tolerant to HNE as reflected by increased cell death, and Nrf2 siRNA prevented HNE-induced UCP3 upregulation. The treatment with HNE greatly altered cardiomyocyte bioenergetics, increasing the proton leak across the inner mitochondrial membrane and severely decreasing the maximal respiratory capacity and the respiratory reserve capacity. These findings confirm that low HNE doses activate Nrf2 in cardiomyocytes and provide the first evidence of Nrf2 binding to the Ucp3 promoter in response to HNE, leading to increased protein expression. These results suggest that the upregulation of UCP3 mediated by Nrf2 in response to HNE might be important in the protection of the heart under conditions of oxidative stress such as ischemia-reperfusion.

TSH effects on thermogenesis in rat brown adipocytes.

TSH receptor (TSHR) is present in the thyroid and other tissues, as adipose tissue. In brown adipose tissue (BAT) TSH increases UCP1 expression and lipolysis. We have studied the regulation of Tshr mRNA expression and the effect of TSH on Ucp1 and Dio2 mRNA, on D2 activity and O2 consumption in rat brown adipocytes and the TSH signaling pathways. Tshr increased during brown adipocyte differentiation, was up-regulated by insulin and low TSH concentrations and down-regulated by high TSH concentrations, T3 and/or NE. TSH increased basal Ucp1 mRNA in a dose-dependent way acting synergistically with T3, while had no effect when NE was present. High TSH concentrations increased basal Dio2 mRNA (12-fold) and were synergistic with T3 (100-fold), but decreased Dio2 mRNA in T3+NE-treated cells. TSH increased D2 activities in T3-treated cells and inhibition of ERK pathway decreased the TSH effect by 55%. In T3+NE treated-cells TSH decreased D2 activity by 50%, in a dose-dependent manner. TSH activated Akt and Erk phosphorylation, while inhibition of PKA promoted Akt phosphorylation. TSH inhibited leptin mRNA. TSH increased O2 consumption by 20% and T3 enhanced its effect. Tshr is expressed in brown adipocytes and is regulated by insulin, TSH, T3 and NE. TSH increases basal and T3-stimulated Ucp1 and Dio2 expression and D2 activity only when T3 is present, but decreases Dio2 mRNA and D2 activity stimulated by NE+T3. TSH increases O2 consumption, confirming the role of TSH in the maintenance of thermogenesis.

The transcription factor Nrf2 promotes survival by enhancing the expression of uncoupling protein 3 under conditions of oxidative stress.

Uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) is a member of the mitochondrial inner membrane carrier superfamily that modulates energy efficiency by catalyzing proton conductance and thus decreasing the production of superoxide anion. However, its role during oxidative stress and the underlying regulatory and molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. We sought to investigate how UCP3 expression is regulated by oxidative stress and to evaluate the putative antioxidant role of this protein. H2O2 treatment increased UCP3 expression and the nuclear accumulation of the transcription factor Nrf2 in C2C12 and HL-1 cells. Nrf2 siRNA prevented H2O2-induced UCP3 expression, increasing oxidative stress and cell death. ChIP assays identified an antioxidant-response element (ARE) within the UCP3 promoter that bound Nrf2 after exposure to H2O2. Luciferase reporter experiments confirmed increased ARE activity in H2O2-treated HL-1 cells. Importantly, H2O2 increased the UCP3-mediated proton leak, suggesting a role for this protein in attenuating ROS-induced damage. Nrf2 nuclear accumulation and increased UCP3 protein were also detected in intact mouse heart subjected to a condition known to increase ROS generation. This is the first study to demonstrate that H2O2 augments UCP3 expression and it provides the first evidence of Nrf2 binding to the UCP3 promoter in response to oxidative challenge. These findings suggest that UCP3 functions as a member of the cellular antioxidant defense system that protects against oxidative stress in vivo. In conclusion, we have identified a novel regulatory process induced by an oxidative insult whereby the expression of the mitochondrial protein UCP3 is driven by the Nrf2 transcription factor, which decreases ROS production and prevents cell death.

Fatty acids revert the inhibition of respiration caused by the antidiabetic drug metformin to facilitate their mitochondrial ß-oxidation.

While metformin has been widely used to treat type 2 diabetes for the last fifty years, its mode of action remains unclear. Hence, we investigated the short-term alterations in energy metabolism caused by metformin administration in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. We found that metformin inhibited mitochondrial respiration, although ATP levels remained constant as the decrease in mitochondrial production was compensated by an increase in glycolysis. While AMP/ATP ratios were unaffected by metformin, phosphorylation of AMPK and its downstream target acetyl-CoA carboxylase augmented. The inhibition of respiration provoked a rapid and sustained increase in superoxide levels, despite the increase in UCP2 and superoxide dismutase activity. The inhibition of respiration was rapidly reversed by fatty acids and thus respiration was lower in treated cells in the presence of pyruvate and glucose while rates were identical to control cells when palmitate was the substrate. We conclude that metformin reversibly inhibits mitochondrial respiration, it rapidly activates AMPK without altering the energy charge, and it inhibits fatty acid synthesis. Mitochondrial ß-oxidation is facilitated by reversing the inhibition of complex I and, presumably, by releasing the inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: 17th European Bioenergetics Conference (EBEC 2012).

Mutations in UCP2 in congenital hyperinsulinism reveal a role for regulation of insulin secretion.

Although the most common mechanism underlying congenital hyperinsulinism is dysfunction of the pancreatic ATP-sensitive potassium channel, the pathogenesis and genetic origins of this disease remains largely unexplained in more than half of all patients. UCP2 knockout mice exhibit an hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, suggesting an involvement of UCP2 in insulin secretion. However, a possible pathogenic role for UCP2 protein in the development of human congenital hyperinsulinism or of any human disease has not yet been investigated. We studied ten children exhibiting congenital hyperinsulinism, without detectable mutations in the known congenital hyperinsulinism-causing genes. Parental-inherited heterozygous UCP2 variants encoding amino-acid changes were found in two unrelated children with congenital hyperinsulinism. Functional assays in yeast and in insulin-secreting cells revealed an impaired activity of UCP2 mutants. Therefore, we report the finding of UCP2 coding variants in human congenital hyperinsulinism, which reveals a role for this gene in the regulation of insulin secretion and glucose metabolism in humans. Our results show for the first time a direct association between UCP2 amino acid alteration and human disease and highlight a role for mitochondria in hormone secretion.

Metformin induces oxidative stress in white adipocytes and raises uncoupling protein 2 levels.

Metformin is a drug widely used to treat type 2 diabetes. It enhances insulin sensitivity by improving glucose utilization in tissues like liver or muscle. Metformin inhibits respiration, and the decrease in cellular energy activates the AMP-activated protein kinase that in turn switches on catabolic pathways. Moreover, metformin increases lipolysis and beta-oxidation in white adipose tissue, thereby reducing the triglyceride stores. The uncoupling proteins (UCPs) are transporters that lower the efficiency of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. UCP2 is thought to protect against oxidative stress although, alternatively, it could play an energy dissipation role. The aim of this work was to analyse the involvement of UCP2 on the effects of metformin in white adipocytes. We studied the effect of this drug in differentiating 3T3-L1 adipocytes and found that metformin causes oxidative stress since it increases the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lowers the aconitase activity. Variations in UCP2 protein levels parallel those of ROS. Metformin also increases lipolysis in these cells although only when the levels of ROS and UCP2 have decreased. Hence, UCP2 does not appear to be needed to facilitate fatty acid oxidation. Furthermore, treatment of C57BL/6 mice with metformin also augmented the levels of UCP2 in epididymal white adipose tissue. We conclude that metformin treatment leads to the overexpression of UCP2 in adipocytes to minimize the oxidative stress that is probably due to the inhibition of respiration caused by the drug.