Reference interval establishment of full blood count extended research parameters in the multi-ethnic population of Malaysia.

Haematological cellular structures may be elucidated using automated full blood count (FBC) analysers such as Unicel DxH 800 via cell population data (CPD) analysis. The CPD values are generated by calculating volume, conductivity, and five types of scatter angles of individual cells which would form clusters or populations. This study considered 126 CPD parameter values of 1077 healthy Malaysian adults to develop reference intervals for each CPD parameter. The utility of the CPD reference interval established may range from understanding the normal haematological cellular structures to analysis of distinct cellular features related to the development of haematological disorders and malignancies.

Intramolecular oxidative deselenization of acylselenoureas: a facile synthesis of benzoxazole amides and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors.

A mild, efficient and one pot procedure to access benzoxazoles using easily accessible acylselenoureas as starting materials has been discovered. Mechanistic studies revealed a pH dependent intramolecular oxidative deselenization, with ring closure due to an intramolecular nucleophilic attack of a phenoxide ion. All the benzoxazoles herein reported possessed a primary sulfonamide zinc binding group and showed effective inhibitory action on the enzymes, carbonic anhydrases.

Sperm forward motility is negatively affected by short-term exposure to altitude hypoxia.

Human exposure to altitude is a model to study the role of oxygen in different areas of physiology and pathophysiology. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a short exposure to hypoxia (5 days) combined with exercise, at altitude ranging from 900 m above sea level to 5895 m above sea level (Kilimanjaro Expedition) can modify seminal and reproductive hormonal parameter levels in human beings. During the ascent, blood oxygen saturation at 3.848 m above sea level was found to be decreased when compared to sea level (P < 0.02). The sperm forward motility at sea level after the expedition showed a significant reduction ​​(P < 0.02). There were no changes in other seminal parameters among those compared. Determination of the hormonal plasma concentrations showed that baseline values of follicle-stimulating hormone, total testosterone, prolactin and oestradiol were unchanged at sea level after the hypoxic experience, with respect to baseline values at sea level. On the other hand, luteinising hormone levels after altitudes trekking significantly increased compared to levels before the expedition (P < 0.05). Because of the short-term exposure, we can assume that the reduced forward motility described here may result from the effects of the acute altitude hypoxia on spermatozoa during the epididymal transit where they mature acquiring their motility.

Varying time-course of effects of high frequency stimulation of sub-regions of the globus pallidus in patients with parkinson's disease.

INTRODUCTION: Deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus can be a highly effective treatment for patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), experiencing Levodopa-induced-dyskinesia (LID). Stimulation programming can focus simply on eliminating dyskinesia, or can also attempt to relieve the rigidity, tremor or akinesia of PD itself. METHODS: In this study, we explored whether additional benefit on the "off" symptoms and signs of PD, could be achieved in post-operative PD patients with good LID control, by making further adjustment to existing stimulation parameters directed towards the more superior electrode contacts, located in the Globus Pallidus pars externa (GPe). RESULTS: Acutely, GPe-DBS led to clear improvement in the akinesia, rigidity and tremor of PD in the off-medication state compared with Globus Pallidus pars interna (GPi) DBS (p = 0.003), however this was accompanied by the development of off-medication dyskinesia. Combined GPi-GPe DBS allowed maintained improvement but without dyskinesia. Follow up of patients over the subsequent 6-12 weeks showed gradual loss of this initial improvement. Switching back to GPi-DBS alone provided greater improvement in off medication symptoms than had been observed using the same GPi-DBS setting, 6-12 weeks previously. CONCLUSIONS: Benefits on the off-medication symptoms of PD obtained acutely with GPe-DBS are in general not sustained. Similarly, the effects of GPi-DBS on the off medication symptoms of PD, can evolve over short periods of time presumably as a result of changes in network-wide neuronal plasticity. These clinical observations provide further insight into DBS mechanism of action, and can also help inform optimal methods of GPi-DBS programming.

Serum from patients with erectile dysfunction inhibits circulating angiogenic cells from healthy men: relationship with cardiovascular risk, endothelial damage and circulating angiogenic modulators.

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is an early manifestation of arteriosclerosis associated with endothelial damage/dysfunction and to a blunted ability of cultured mononuclear circulating cells (MNCs) to differentiate circulating angiogenic cells (CACs), putatively involved in endothelial damage repair. Here we explored effects of human serum (HS) from patients with ED and cardiovascular risk factors (VRFs) but no clinical atherosclerosis, on cultured MNCs of healthy men to differentiate CACs and to form colonies. Effect of HS on number of CACS and of colony forming units (CFUs) was correlated with circulating markers of endothelial damage and with angiogenic modulators. MNCs from healthy men were cultured in standard conditions or with 20% HS from 35 patients with ED and from 10 healthy men. CACs were identified after 7 days of culture by uptake of acetylated low-density lipoprotein with concomitant binding of Ulex europaeus agglutinin I. CFUs were counted after 5 days of culture. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays assessed plasmatic soluble (s) form of E-selectin, Endothelin (ET)-1, tissue type plasminogen activator (tPA), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)(165) and sVEGF receptor (R)-1. The number of CACs and of CFUs from healthy men was reduced after culturing MNCs with HS compared to standard medium. The inhibitory effect was significantly higher with HS from ED patients with higher or lower VRF exposure compared to healthy men. Inhibition was positively correlated with VRFs exposure, with ED severity, with common carotid artery intima media thickness measured using B-mode ultrasound, and to a lesser extent with plasmatic sE-Selectin, sET-1 and sVEGFR-1. Dysfunction of cells involved in vascular homoeostasis is induced by soluble factors still unknown and already present in a very initial systemic vascular disease in men with ED and VRFs.

[Does multiple sclerosis facilitate migraine]. / Begünstigt eine Multiple-Sklerose-Erkrankung die Entwicklung einer Migräne?

Known comorbidities for migraine are affective disorders. Only few studies exist which explore migraine as comorbidity in a given diagnosis. The aim of our study is to determine the frequency of the comorbidity "migraine" subject to a given diagnosis. Out of 2562 observations comorbidity "migraine" was diagnosed with a frequency of 16.2 % when an affective disorder was diagnosed. In multiple sclerosis and epilepsy, migraine as comorbidity was diagnosed in 15 % and 9.6 %, respectively. Migraine in patients with Parkinson's disease is rare. The correlation between affective disorders and epilepsies is known, but the high frequency of migraine in multiple sclerosis should be taken into account when diagnosing central demyelinating disorders.

Pros and cons of dexamethasone suppression test for screening of subclinical Cushing's syndrome in patients with adrenal incidentalomas.

The results of dexamethasone suppression tests (DST) in the screening of subclinical hypercortisolism are not readily comparable. Aim of the present study was to review the effectiveness of overnight 1-mg DST and 8-mg DST to look for functional autonomy of clinically inapparent adrenal adenomas. Sixty-eight consecutive patients with clinically inapparent adrenal adenomas were enrolled. All patients underwent 1-mg DST. The 8-mg DST was performed in the 11 patients who had post 1-mg DST cortisol >138 nmol/l and in 11 patients who had post 1-mg DST cortisol between 50 and 138 nmol/l. The a priori probability to have autonomous cortisol secretion was defined by the presence of at least two alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis among reduced ACTH concentrations, elevated urinary free cortisol (UFC) or elevated midnight serum cortisol. Cortisol levels >138 nmol/l after the 1-mg DST increases the post-test probability of adrenal functional autonomy to 55%, whereas cortisol levels <50 nmol/l reduce the post-test probability to 8%. Cortisol levels recorded after the 8-mg DST were nonsignificantly lower than after the 1-mg DST and all the patients with cortisol >138 nmol/l after the 1-mg DST maintained cortisol above this cut-point. The 1-mg DST should be considered as the more effective test to detect autonomous cortisol secretion by a clinically inapparent adrenal adenoma when cortisol levels are >138 nmol/l, while cortisol levels <50 nmol/l reduce remarkably the post-test probability of this event. The 8-mg DST seems to replicate by large the results of the 1-mg DST.

Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis and parathyroid hormone.

Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (GIO) is the most common form of secondary osteoporosis. Bisphosphonates are considered the first-line treatment option for the majority of glucocorticoid-treated patients at increased risk of fractures. However, the anti-resorptive mechanism of bisphosphonates does not address the major pathophysiological mechanisms of impaired bone formation during chronic glucocorticoid treatment. PTH, when administered intermittently and at low doses, has effects on bone formation opposite to those of glucocorticoids and therefore is conceptually a more attractive approach. Teriparatide (1-34PTH) has been studied in patients with GIO with effects on bone mineral density and on fracture risk which were shown to be superior to those obtained with alendronate.

Estimating the direct cost of Type 2 diabetes in Greece: the effects of blood glucose regulation on patient cost.

AIMS: To estimate the annual cost of treatment for Type 2 diabetic patients in Greece and investigate the effect of blood glucose regulation on patient cost. METHODS: A multipoint data collection procedure based on the patient records of 51 geographically distributed physicians was used in order to obtain the necessary data for the analysis and the construction of the patient cost model. Patients were classified as controlled (i.e. maintaining blood glucose regulation for the 1 year retrospective time frame of the analysis) and non-controlled (the patients failing to do so in the specified time period). Cost categories included pharmaceutical expenditure, laboratory/diagnostic tests and consultation fees. Costs attributable to hospitalizations due to diabetic complications were not included. Calculations were based on 2007 fees and prices, and costs are expressed in Euros. RESULTS: The average annual cost of treatment for controlled patients was estimated at 981.72 euro (95% confidence interval, 940.66-1023.01 euro), whereas for non-controlled patients it was 1566.12 euro (95% confidence interval, 1485.42-1650.20 euro). Non-controlled patients had 29.7% higher annual pharmaceutical costs (340.50 vs. 441.96 euro), 70% higher costs for laboratory/diagnostic tests (422.54 vs. 718.49 euro) and 85.5% higher consultation costs (218.68 vs. 405.67 euro) compared with their controlled peers. The average cost for a Type 2 diabetic patient in Greece, regardless of blood glucose regulation, was 1297.30 euro (95% confidence interval, 1244.42-1349.61 euro). CONCLUSIONS: Failing to control blood glucose levels within 'glycaemic goals', apart from the clinical consequences, can also have a significant financial impact, resulting in a 59.5% increase in the mean annual patient cost.

Hip fractures in Italy: 2000-2005 extension study.

SUMMARY: A total of 507,671 people > or =65 experienced hip fractures between 2000 and 2005. In 2005, 94,471 people > or =65 were hospitalized due to hip fractures, corresponding to a 28.5% increase over 6 years. Most fractures occurred in patients > or =75 (82.9%; n = 420,890; +16% across 6 years), particularly in women (78.2%; n = 396,967). INTRODUCTION: We aimed to analyze incidence and costs of hip fractures in Italy over the last 6 years. METHODS: We analyzed the national hospitalization and DRG databases concerning fractures occurred in people > or =65 between 2000 and 2005. RESULTS: A total of 507,671 people > or =65 experienced hip fractures across 6 years, resulting in about 120,000 deaths. In year 2005 94,471 people aged > or =65 were hospitalized due to hip fractures, corresponding to a 28.5% increase over 6 years. The majority of hip fractures occurred in patients > or =75 (82.9%; n = 420,890; +16% across 6 years) and particularly in women (78.2%; n = 396,967). Among women, 84.2% of fractures (n = 334,223; +28.0% over 6 years) were experienced by patients > or =75, which is known to be the age group with the highest prevalence of osteoporosis, accounting for 68.6% of the overall observed increase in the total number of fractures. Hip fractures in men > or =75 increased by 33.1% (up to 16,540). Hospitalization costs increased across the six examined years (+36.1%) reaching 467 million euros in 2005, while rehabilitation costs rose up to 531 million in the same year. CONCLUSIONS: Hip fractures of the elderly are increasing and represent a major health problem in industrialized countries such as Italy.

A biparametric flow cytometry analysis for the study of reticulocyte patterns of maturation.

Automated haematological analysers still represent the gold standard for the study of reticulocyte maturation even if this technique is based on structural properties and staining affinity rather than on functional aspects. On the contrary, flow cytometry allows the simultaneous analysis of multiple cellular characteristics including functional features. Aim was to investigate whether simultaneous analysis of different reticulocyte parameters using flow cytometry may add functional information when considering their pattern of maturation. Thirty-nine healthy donors (H) and 31 haemodialysed patients on treatment with rHuEpo (HDT) were analysed. Reticulocyte counts and their stages of maturation were studied both with ADVIA 2120 and by flow cytometry. TO/CD71 scattergraph reticulocyte analysis designed a peculiar distribution which was similar among the same group of subjects (H or HDT), but different between H and HDT. distribution of the percentage of reticulocytes in low, medium and high boxes calculated by ADVIA 2120 did not show any difference between H and HDT groups, while the analysis using flow cytometry pointed out statistically significant differences between H and HDT groups in the three boxes where the TO+/CD71+ reticulocytes were localized. The present study suggests that TO/CD71 analysis was reproducible and could detect different pattern of maturation of a particular clinical setting.

Beta-chemokine receptor CCR5 in human spermatozoa and its relationship with seminal parameters.

BACKGROUND: Chemokine receptor CCR5, the main HIV-1 coreceptor, is present in the human spermatozoa. This study aimed to investigate (i) whether the percentage of CCR5-positive spermatozoa varies under conditions associated with changes in the membrane architecture, such as capacitation and fixation/permeabilization procedures; (ii) whether there is any relationship between individual variability in sperm CCR5 expression and semen parameters. METHODS AND RESULTS: In cytometric analysis, the percentage of CCR5-positive unfixed spermatozoa varied from approximately 10 to approximately 60%, and it significantly decreased after 5 h capacitation. The percentage of CCR5-positive spermatozoa was increased to more than 90% following fixation and permeabilization, suggesting the existence of large intracellular pools of the receptor. Immunocytochemistry showed positive staining in the anterior region of the sperm head. In ejaculates from male partner of 102 infertile couples, the CCR5 expression rate significantly correlated with sperm count, total sperm number and forward motility, but not with sperm morphology. In stepwise analysis, only forward motility entered into the model; however, this explained only approximately 8% of the variability in CCR5 expression. Interquartile analysis showed significant differences between the first and fourth quartiles of CCR5 expression for all semen parameters, except morphology. CONCLUSIONS: The percentage of CCR5-positive spermatozoa may vary under conditions associated with changes in membrane architecture and spermatozoa showed large intracellular pools of CCR5. A lower expression of CCR5 in asthenozoospermia seems to be suggested; however, it would only partially contribute to the inter-individual variability in the CCR5 expression. A genetic basis can be hypothesized to explain the variability.

N-terminal proB-type natriuretic peptide and homocysteine concentrations in athletes.

AIM: Several studies suggest that intense exercise may increase the athlete's thrombotic tendency. Available data on those metabolic alteration are still conflicting and their clinical significance is still worth of interest. The aim of the present study was to investigate if widely used markers of cardiac damage such as NT-proBNP levels are affected by homocysteine concentrations during sustained sport activities. METHODS: Seventy-eight competitive, non-professional athletes were enrolled in the study; 70 healthy age matched subjects, recruited from blood donors, served as controls. Besides the general clinical determinations, the assessed variables included homocysteine, folate, vitamin B12, total and HDL cholesterol, LDH, CPK, NT-proBNP and IL-6. RESULTS: The percentages of athletes with normal and elevated homocysteine levels resulted 46% and 54%, respectively. Mean NT-proBNP levels were significantly higher in athletes than in controls (1176.66 + or - 442.15 pg/mL versus 450.34 + or - 180.39 pg/mL). No correlation was found between homocysteine and NT-proBNP values. CONCLUSIONS: The previously described "sport related" homocysteine is not related to other markers of cardiovascular stress such as NT-proBNP. Available data suggest that both hyperhomocysteinemia and high NT-proBNP levels in healthy young athletes could be interpreted as markers of metabolic and morphologic adaptation to training rather than a risk factor for cardio-vascular diseases.

Prognostic significance of disordered calcium metabolism in hormone-refractory prostate cancer patients with metastatic bone disease.

Bone metabolic disruption that occurs in bone metastatic prostate cancer could lead to disturbances of calcium metabolism. The prognostic role of either hypocalcemia or hypercalcemia was assessed in a consecutive series of hormone-refractory bone metastatic prostate cancer patients. Serum calcium was measured in 192 patients. The presence of hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia was related with baseline biochemical and clinical characteristics and the role of these two calcium disturbances in predicting prognosis and adverse skeletal-related events (SREs) was assessed. As compared to normocalcemic patients, hypocalcemic patients (n=51) had higher tumor load in bone (P=0.005), higher plasma chromogranin A (CgA, P=0.01), serum alkaline phosphatase (P=0.01), urinary N-telopeptide (NTX, P=0.002) and lower hemoglobin values (P=0.01), while hypercalcemic patients (n=16) had higher plasma CgA (P=0.001) and serum lactate dehydrogenase values (P=0.001), higher bone pain (P=0.003) and a lower frequency of pure osteoblastic lesions (P=0.001). Hypercalcemia was significantly associated with poor prognosis: hazard ratio (HR), 1.9 (95% confidence Interval (CI) 1.2-3.3) and higher risk to develop SREs HR, 2.5 (95% CI 1.2-5.2, P=0.01), while hypocalcemia was not associated with poor prognosis. The prognostic role of hypercalcemia was maintained in multivariate analysis after adjusting for validated prognostic parameters: HR, 2.72 (95% CI 1.1-6.8, P=0.03). These data suggest that serum calcium levels should be taken into account in the clinical decision-making process of bone metastatic prostate cancer patients. Patients with asymptomatic hypercalcemia could benefit of a strict follow-up and an immediate bisphosphonate treatment. Further prospective clinical trials are needed to confirm this finding.

Determinants of glucocorticoid action in the bone microenvironment.

In recent years, increased awareness and availability of proper diagnostic tools have made subclinical endocrine disease an emerging issue. The clinical impact of subtle alterations of hormonal secretion and/or action depends on the sensitivity of target cells, which shows wide interindividual variability, and within the same individual, varies among tissues and changes in particular microenvironments, e.g. when inflammation is present. Subclinical hypercortisolism is a typical example of this new approach which privileges hormonal action rather than secretion. In the present paper, we concisely review the mechanisms of genomic and non-genomic actions of glucocorticoids (GC), and the determinants of GC sensitivity, with special attention to those more investigated in relation to bone metabolism: GC receptor (GR) types, isoforms and polymorphisms, and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11beta-HSD) shuttle. Detailed knowledge of the mechanisms of GR action has opened the way to the development of novel selective GR modulators or selective GR agonists, which show promise of being efficacious for specific treatments of disease having fewer side effects. Exogenous GC excess due to the therapeutic use of GC is the most frequent cause of secondary osteoporosis. Variability of therapeutic or detrimental effects among patients and in the same patient as a function of the clinical course is nowadays recognized to depend on numerous factors. While intermediate to high doses are likely to overcome inter-individual differences in sensitivity, assessment of clinical efficacy and monitoring of adverse effects are of special importance for chronic users of low-dose GC; in these patients prediction of individual response seems still far from clinical practice. In the next future evaluation of GR polymorphisms and 11beta-HSD activities are likely to become important components of a comprehensive approach aimed to "tailor" the therapeutic strategy to the individual risk/benefit ratio.

Dynamics of the global tyrosine phosphorylation during capacitation and acquisition of the ability to fuse with oocytes in human spermatozoa.

Phosphorylation of tyrosine residues in cellular proteins represents a major event during sperm capacitaton, but its relationship with the acquisition of sperm-fertilizing ability is still unclear. In this study we explored the relationship between the kinetics of the global tyrosine phosphorylation, monitored with a flow cytometric assay, and the acquisition of the human sperm ability to fuse with oocytes, evaluated with the progesterone-enhanced hamster egg penetration test. Sperm tyrosine phosphorylation appeared to be an early event in the capacitation process, with a 3.6-fold mean increase within 1 h of capacitation, but at this time sperm-oocyte fusion was extremely poor compared with that observed at 5 h of capacitation. Capacitation in calcium-free medium produced a 2-fold mean increase in tyrosine phosphorylation compared with that seen in complete capacitation medium both at 1 h and 5 h of capacitation, whereas sperm-oocyte fusion significantly increased only at 1 h, remaining unchanged at 5 h of capacitation. The cAMP analog, N,2-O-dibutyryladenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (dbcAMP), prevented the inhibitory effect of seminal plasma on tyrosine phosphorylation but not on sperm-oocyte fusion. In conclusion, these results suggest that the acquisition of sperm-fertilizing ability is always associated with an increase of the global tyrosine phosphorylation, but tyrosine phosphorylation does not necessarily reflect the acquisition of the sperm-fertilizing ability. Flow cytometry assay, a reliable technique to quickly quantify the global levels of the human sperm tyrosine phosphorylation, could be useful for a further elucidation of the biological meaning of this process, with the perspective of its clinical use as a measure of the sperm-fertilizing potential.

RANTES and human sperm fertilizing ability: effect on acrosome reaction and sperm/oocyte fusion.

Beta-chemokine, regulated on activation and normally T-cell expressed and presumably secreted (RANTES), is present in both the male and female genital tract fluids where its levels increase in diseases related to infertility, such as endometriosis and male genital tract infections. beta-Chemokine receptors (CCR3 and CCR5) are expressed on freshly ejaculated human sperm cells and a sperm chemoattractant effect for RANTES has been reported. No information exists on other possible roles of RANTES on sperm functions involved in the fertilization process. In the present study, the exposure of sperm suspensions to high concentrations of the chemokine, comparable to those observed in inflammatory diseases, significantly decreased the stimulatory effect exerted by progesterone on sperm/oocyte fusion, evaluated by means of the hamster egg penetration test. Accordingly, a large proportion of spermatozoa preincubated under capacitating conditions with high concentrations of RANTES underwent a premature acrosome reaction (AR) that prevented subsequent progesterone-induced AR. Finally, sperm samples exposed to the same high levels of chemokine showed a significant increase in the intracellular levels of cAMP, which is involved in capacitation and AR dynamics. These results indicate a negative interference of high levels of RANTES on the sperm fertilizing ability, thereby suggesting a potential contribution of this chemokine to subfertility associated with endometriosis and genital tract inflammatory diseases.

Changes of bone turnover markers and serum PTH after night or morning administration of zoledronic acid in breast cancer patients with bone metastases.

Persistent circadian rhythm of bone turnover in bone metastatic breast cancer suggests greater skeletal retention of bisphosphonates if administered in the night. We assessed differential effects of night vs morning administration of zoledronic acid (ZA) on bone turnover. Forty-four breast cancer patients with bone metastases were randomised to receive intravenous ZA (4 mg) at 1100 or 2300 hours every 28 days for four times. Urinary concentration N-telopeptide of type-I collagen (NTX) and deoxypyridinolines, and serum C-telopeptide of type-I collagen (CTX), bone alkaline phosphatase (ALP), osteocalcin and Parathyroid hormone (PTH) was measured in the morning at baseline and after 4, 7, 14, 28, 56 and 84 days. Urinary ZA concentration was also measured. Zoledronic acid caused significant decreases of NTX and CTX (P<0.001), without any difference in percent changes between night and morning arms. Bone ALP and osteocalcin were also significantly affected by ZA (P=0.001), without any difference between arms. Parathyroid hormone significantly increased in both the arms; PTH increase was lower in the night arm (P=0.001). From the second administration onwards, urinary ZA level was significantly higher in the night arm (P<0.01). Administration of ZA at two opposite phases of the circadian cycle causes similar changes of bone-turnover marker levels, but has differential effects on the level of serum PTH.

Oxygen delivery enhancers: past, present, and future.

In endurance sport the delivery of oxygen to muscles plays a critical role. Indeed, muscle performance declines during prolonged and intense activity as a consequence of the shift from the aerobic to the anaerobic metabolism with an increase of lactate. To enhance the aerobic capacity 2 alternatives may be used: increasing either the transport or the delivery of oxygen. In this setting, blood doping is the practice of illicitly using a drug or blood product to improve athletic performance. Based on this definition, blood doping techniques may include: 1) blood transfusion (autologous or omologous); 2) erythropoiesis-stimulating substances [recombinant human erythropoietin (alpha, beta, omega), darbepoietin-alpha, continuous erythropoiesis receptor activator, hematide]; 3) blood substitutes (hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers, perfluorocarbon emulsions); 4) allosteric modulators of hemoglobin (RSR-13 and RSR-4); 5) gene doping (human erythropoietin gene transfection); 6) gene regulation (hypoxia-inducible transcription factors pathway). In the present overview we will briefly describe the above-mentioned techniques with the aim of underlining potential hematological alternatives to gene doping for increasing aerobic capacity in sport.

Sport-related hyperhomocysteinaemia: a putative marker of muscular demand to be noted for cardiovascular risk.

OBJECTIVE: Regular physical activity is associated with a reduction of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality; however, evidence of unfortunate cardiovascular events accompanying elite sport involvement continues to accumulate. To date, no information is available on possible peculiarities of the cardiovascular risk profile in athletes. DESIGN: The aim of this study was to evaluate plasma homocysteine levels in a group of athletes and to search for relationship with vitamin status and other metabolic variables in order to confirm the existence of a "sport-related hyperhomocysteinaemia" and to explain its clinical significance. The study population was composed of 82 athletes (59 male and 23 female) practising different sports and 70 healthy age-matched subjects (40 male and 30 female) as a control group. Besides the general clinical and analytical determinations, the assessed variables included homocysteine, folate, vitamin B12, total and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CPK) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). RESULTS: The prevalence of hyperhomocysteinaemia (>15 micromol/l) in athletes and controls was 47% and 15%, respectively. No correlation was found between homocysteine and any of the other investigated variables, in particular plasma folate, blood pressure, LDH, CPK, total and HDL cholesterol and IL-6. CONCLUSION: The results of this study confirm the existence of a sport-related hyperhomocysteinaemia which appears linked neither to the same variables found in the general population, nor to specific training-related variables. We suggest that it would represent an adaptation to training but the possibility of a secondary vascular damage cannot be excluded.