Subcutaneous occurrence of encysted Acanthocephala in an anuran amphibian from Brazil.

Acanthocephalans, in their adult stage, are obligatory parasites of many types of vertebrates, including anuran amphibians. Their complex life cycle always involves an arthropod intermediate host but may include non-obligatory strategies that could improve transmission success, such as paratenic infections. In paratenic hosts, these parasites are normally found loose in the body cavity or encysted in internal organs. Here, we present the first report of acanthocephalans found encysted under the skin of an amphibian (i.e., external to its body cavity). The specimen, a clay robber frog [Haddadus binotatus (Spix, 1824)], had been collected in an Atlantic Forest area in southeastern Brazil. Upon examination of the frog, we recovered two specimens of acanthocephalan (Order Echinorhynchida) encysted under the skin of its venter. Considering the host's relatively small size and its thin ventral musculature, we believe that the acanthocephalans may have accidentally trespassed the muscular tissue while attempting to encyst in the frog's internal body wall.

The climatic risk of Amazonian protected areas is driven by climate velocity until 2050.

Changes in species distribution in response to climate change might challenge the territorial boundaries of protected areas. Amazonia is one of the global regions most at risk of developing long distances between current and future analogous climates and the emergence of climate conditions without analogs in the past. As a result, species present within the network of Protected Areas (PAs) of Amazonia may be threatened throughout the 21st century. In this study, we investigated climate velocity based on future and past climate-analogs using forward and backward directions in the network of PAs of Amazonia, in order to assess the climatic risk of these areas to climate change and verify their effectiveness in maintaining the current climate conditions. Using current (1970-2000) and future (2041-2060) average annual air temperature and precipitation data with a resolution of 10 km, climate velocities across the entire Amazon biome and average climate velocities of PAs and Indigenous Lands (ILs) were evaluated. The results show that the effects of backward velocity will be greater than that of forward velocity in the Amazon biome. However, the PA network will be less exposed to backward velocity impacts than unprotected areas (UAs)-emphasizing the importance of these areas as a conservation tool. In contrast, for the forward velocity impacts, the PA network will be slightly more exposed than UAs-indicating that the current spatial arrangement of the PA network is still not the most suitable to minimize impacts of a possible climate redistribution. In addition, a large extent of no-analog climates for backward velocities was found in central Amazonia, indicating that high temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns in this region will surpass the historical variability of the entire biome, making it a potentially isolated and unsuitable climatic envelope for species in the future. Most of the no-analog climates are in PAs, however the climate risks in ILs should also be highlighted since they presented higher climate velocities than PAs in both metrics. Our projections contrast with the median latitudinal migration rate of 2 km/year observed in most ecosystems and taxonomic groups studied so far and suggest the need for median migration rates of 7.6 km/year. Thus, despite the important role of PAs and ILs as conservation tools, they are not immune to the effects of climate change and new management strategies, specific to each area and that allow adaptation to global changes, will be necessary.

Potential Distribution of Pilocarpus microphyllus in the Amazonia/Cerrado Biomes under Near-Future Climate Change Scenarios.

Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf. ex Wardlew. (Rutaceae) is an endemic and threatened medicinal plant species from tropical Brazil. Popularly known as "jaborandi", it is the unique natural source of pilocarpine, an alkaloid used to medical treat glaucoma and xerostomia. Based on Species Distribution Models (SDMs), we modeled the suitability of P. microphyllus's geographical distribution considering three Global Circulation Models (GCMs) under two future climate change scenarios (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5). The quantitative analyses carried out using ten different SDM algorithms revealed that precipitation seasonality (Bio15) and precipitation of the driest month (Bio14) were the most important bioclimatic variables. The results evidenced four main key areas of continuous occurrence of the plant spreading diagonally over tropical Brazilian biomes (Amazon, Cerrado and Caatinga). The near-future (2020 to 2040) ensemble projections considering all GCMs and scenarios have indicated negative impacts for the potential loss or significant reduction in suitable habitats for P. microphyllus in the transition region between the Amazon and Cerrado into central and northern Maranhão state, and mainly in the Caatinga biome over the northern Piaui state. On the other hand, positive impacts of the expansion of the plant habitat suitability are projected over forest cover protected areas of the Amazon biome in the southeastern Pará state. Since the jaborandi is of socioeconomic importance for many families in the north/northeast Brazil, it is urgent to implement public policies for conservation and sustainable management, thus mitigating the impacts of global climate change.

Climate change could reduce and spatially reconfigure cocoa cultivation in the Brazilian Amazon by 2050.

Cocoa is a plant with origins in northwestern South America with high relevance in the global economy. Evidence indicates that cocoa is sensitive to a dry climate, under which crop production is reduced. Projections for future climate change scenarios suggest a warmer and drier climate in the Amazon basin. In this paper, we quantify the potential effects in cocoa production due to its edaphoclimatic suitability changes to the Brazilian Amazon biome and account for regional differences in planning occupation territories. We modeled the suitability of cocoa's geographical distribution using an ensemble of 10 correlative models that were run in the "biomod2" library and projected to two future climate scenarios (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5) by 2050. Combining information on climate and soil suitability and installed infrastructure in the macro-regions of the Brazilian Amazon. We defined a zoning system to indicate how cocoa production may respond to climate change according to the current and future suitability model. Our results suggest that a reduction in precipitation and an increase in temperature may promote a reduction in the suitability of cocoa production in the Brazilian Amazon biome. In addition of the areas suitable for cocoa plantation, we found a 37.05% and 73.15% decrease in the areas suitable for intensification and expansion zones under RCP 4.5 and 8.5, respectively, compared with the current scenario. We conclude that there may be a need to expand land to cocoa production in the future, or else it will be necessary to plant a cocoa variety resistant to new climatic conditions. Besides, we recommend procedures to combat illegal deforestation to prevent the most critical climate change scenarios from occurring.

Biodiversity of anuran endoparasites from a transitional area between the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil: new records and remarks.

The richness of metazoan endoparasites associated with 25 anuran species from a transitional area between Cerrado and Atlantic Rain Forest from Brazil is here presented. We present and discuss the type-host and localities, the current taxonomic status, remarks on morphological features, biological cycle, and new records of these parasites. Nine hundred and seventy-eight anurans of four families (Bufonidae, Hylidae, Microhylidae, and Leptodactylidae) were collected during four expeditions in a private forested area from Northwest of São Paulo state. The richness of metazoan parasites was composed of nematodes (21), acanthocephalans (2), digeneans (18), monogeneans (1), cestodes (1), and oligochaetes (1), resulting in 44 taxa that are presented with their respective prevalence and the range of abundance in host populations. Among these parasites, nine were found in immature stages which usually complete their life cycle in fishes, snakes, birds or mammals, attesting the trophic relation of amphibians and their parasites within the regional vertebrate community. We reported 23 anuran species as new hosts resulting in 79 new associations between anurans and parasites. Gorgoderina diaster and Bursotrema tetracotyloides are reported for the first time in Brazil, and our finding of Clinostomum cf. complanatum represents the first in South American anurans.

Exploring Neotropical anuran parasites: a morphological, life cycle and phylogenetic study of Catadiscus marinholutzi (Trematoda: Diplodiscidae).

Amphistome species belonging to the genus Catadiscus are poorly studied intestinal trematodes found primarily in Neotropical anurans. Herein, developmental stages of an amphistome species found during herpetological and malacological surveys in a temporary marsh pond from Brazil were subjected to morphological (light and scanning electron microscopy) and molecular analyses. Adult parasites recovered from anurans were identified as Catadiscus marinholutzi. Amphistome cercariae found in the planorbid snails Drepanotrema depressissimum and Drepanotrema lucidum from the same waterbody were used for experimental and molecular studies. Immature parasites, morphologically compatible with members of Catadiscus, were experimentally obtained in laboratory-reared tadpoles. Sequencing of a partial region of 28S rDNA gene of both adult and cercariae revealed 100% similarity between these developmental stages, confirming their conspecificity. Phylogenetic analyses were attempted for the first time to reveal the position of a species of Catadiscus in the superfamily Paramphistomoidea. Catadiscus marinholutzi falls in a virtual polytomy together with other paramphistomoids, which leaves its phylogenetic relationships within the group unclear. Moreover, the high genetic divergence to Diplodiscus spp. (10.06­10.84%) cast doubts on the placement of Catadiscus within Diplodiscidae. Hence the species composition of the Diplodiscidae should be re-evaluated in further studies using a broader spectrum of related taxa.

In vitro anthelmintic activity of the crude hydroalcoholic extract of Piper cubeba fruits and isolated natural products against gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep.

This study describes the in vitro anthelmintic activity of a hydroalcoholic extract from the fruit of Piper cubeba and its major isolated components against the eggs and larvae of gastrointestinal nematodes obtained from naturally-infected ovines. In vitro anthelmintic activity was evaluated using the egg hatch test (EHT), larval development test (LDT) and L3 migration inhibition test (LMT). The extract showed ovicidal and larvicidal activity, with an EC50 of 200 µg/mL and 83.00 µg/mL in the EHT and LDT, respectively. The extract inhibited 100% of larval migration at the lowest tested concentration (95 µg/mL). The crude extract was purified using successive silica gel chromatographic columns, which revealed the lignans hinokinin, cubebin and dihydrocubebin as the major compounds that were present, which were then used in in vitro tests. Cubebin, dihydrocubebin and hinokinin showed higher activity than the crude extract, with an EC50 for ovicidal activity of 150.00 µg/mL, 186.70 µg/mL and 68.38 µg/mL, respectively. In the LDT, cubebin presented an EC50 of 14.89 µg/mL and dihydrocubebin of 30.75 µg/mL. Hinokinin inhibited 100% the larval development at all concentrations evaluated. In the LMT, dihydrocubebin inhibited 100% the larval migration in all concentrations evaluated while cubebin and hinokinin showed EC50 values of 0.89 µg/mL and 0.34 µg/mL, respectively. P. cubeba extract is rich in several classes of active compounds, but here we demonstrate that the described anthelmintic activity may be related to the presence of these lignans, which are present in larger concentrations than other components of the extract. Our results demonstrate for first time the anthelmintic activity against gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep for this class of special metabolites that are present in P. cubeba fruit. However, future detailed studies are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of P. cubeba fruits extract and active lignans in in vivo tests.

In vitro anthelmintic activity of grape pomace extract against gastrointestinal nematodes of naturally infected sheep.

Grape pomace obtained as a byproduct of industrial processing of grapes retains nutrients and substances with anthelmintic potential such as saponins, tannins, and flavonoids. Therefore, this study evaluated the in vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity of hydroalcoholic grape pomace extract against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep. The anthelmintic evaluation was performed by in vitro assays with eggs and larvae of nematodes obtained from naturally infected donor sheep. The grape pomace extract showed high in vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity with LD50 values of 0.30 mg/mL for egg hatching inhibition, 1.01 mg/mL for larval development inhibition and 100% efficacy in larval migration inhibition assays at all concentrations evaluated. The effect of tannins was evaluated by the addition of 50 mg/mL polyvinyl polypyrrolidone to grape pomace extract at the concentration of 12.5 mg/mL. The in vitro ovicidal activity of grape pomace was reduced by only 15% after polyvinyl polypyrrolidone addition, indicating that other phytochemicals also contribute to the ovicidal activity displayed by the extract. Our results demonstrate that grape pomace exhibits in vitro anthelmintic activity, suggesting that, beyond its nutritional potential, this pomace can also be an ally for gastrointestinal nematode control in sheep.

Measuring resilience and assessing vulnerability of terrestrial ecosystems to climate change in South America.

Climate change has been identified as the primary threat to the integrity and functioning of ecosystems in this century, although there is still much uncertainty about its effects and the degree of vulnerability for different ecosystems to this threat. Here we propose a new methodological approach capable of measuring and mapping the resilience of terrestrial ecosystems at large scales based on their climatic niche. To do this, we used high spatial resolution remote sensing data and ecological niche modeling techniques to calculate and spatialize the resilience of three stable states of ecosystems in South America: forest, savanna, and grassland. Also, we evaluated the sensitivity of ecosystems to climate stress, the likelihood of exposure to non-analogous climatic conditions, and their respective adaptive capacities in the face of climate change. Our results indicate that forests, the most productive and biodiverse terrestrial ecosystems on the earth, are more vulnerable to climate change than savannas or grasslands. Forests showed less resistance to climate stress and a higher chance of exposure to non-analogous climatic conditions. If this scenario occurs, the forest ecosystems would have less chance of adaptation compared to savannas or grasslands because of their narrow climate niche. Therefore, we can conclude that a possible consolidation of non-analogous climatic conditions would lead to a loss of resilience in the forest ecosystem, significantly increasing the chance of a critical transition event to another stable state with a lower density of vegetation cover (e.g., savanna or grassland).

Helminth parasites of Mabuya arajara Rebouças-Spieker, 1981 (Lacertilia: Mabuyidae) from Chapada do Araripe, northeastern Brazil.

We provide data on the helminth fauna from the digestive tract of the lizard Mabuya arajara Rebouças-Spieker, 1981 from Chapada do Araripe, northeastern Brazil. Seventy one of the 127 lizards examined (56%) were infected with four nematode species: Physalopteroides venancioi and Physaloptera sp. (Physalopteridae), Strongyluris oscari (Heterakidae), and Parapharyngodon alvarengai (Pharyngodonidae), the latter being the component species (prevalence 53.5%; mean intensity of infection 3.37 ± 2.0; discrepancy index D = 0.69). The helminth P. alvarengai infected M. arajara throughout the year and showed increased infection rates in July, at the beginning of the dry season. In addition to the relationship with seasonality, lizards with greater body length and/or body mass were more infected. Relationships between number of parasites and body mass and with the sexes of lizards, on the other hand, were not found. Mabuya arajara represents a new host for these nematodes. This study contributes to the knowledge of the helminth fauna associated with the digestive tract of lizards from South America and the Caatinga domain.

Ecological implications of floods on the parasite communities of two freshwater catfishes in a Neotropical floodplain.

The parasite communities of two freshwater catfishes (Auchenipterus osteomystax and Trachelyopterus galeatus) were analyzed during the dry and rainy seasons in a Neotropical floodplain. The nature of river-floodplain systems places specific demands on parasite community structure, due to changes in the host environment. It was therefore hypothesized that flood conditions lead to an increase in the richness and abundance of fish parasites in the rainy season at the mouth of Aguapeí River floodplain. The Auchenipterus osteomystax parasite community was richer (11 vs. eight) in species than T. galeatus, although the latter exhibited a greater parasite burden (F1,108 = 126.99, P<0.0001). During the rainy season both host species demonstrated high levels of parasitism (least squared means ± SE = 1.69 ± 0.05 vs. 1.34 ± 0.05; F1,108 = 21.45, P<0.0001). Differences were found in the composition of the parasite species and the proportion of parasites for each host species and between each seasonal period. Flood conditions during the rainy season caused a change in the composition and structure of the parasitic communities. The results corroborate the hypothesis that floods are one of the most significant influences on shaping the parasite communities of fish in floodplains. Our greatest concern is the reduction these dynamics and effects bring about on local biota and, consequently, in host-parasite interaction. We would therefore like to take this opportunity to warn environmental agencies and hydroelectric companies about the importance of the conservation of the diversity of this location.

Are Aedes aegypti mosquitoes potential vectors for leishmaniasis? ­ Case report / Mosquitos Aedes aegypti são vetores potenciais de leishmaniose? ­ Relato de caso

In Brazil dipters of the Lutzomyia genus are the main vectors of leishmaniasis for humans and animals. However, other hematophagous insects such as ticks, fleas, and horse flies may also be considered potential vectors of this protozoon. This paper, regarding an endemic area for visceral leishmaniasis, is the the first description of the Leishmania spp. presence in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Two A. aegypti mosquitoes were captured: one of them was feeding on a polysymptomatic dog with leishmaniasis, confirmed by parasitic demonstration and positive PCR for Leishmania spp., and the other was collected in the environment where the dog was isolated. The mosquito engorged with dog's blood was crushed between two microscopic slides and the other one was processed by the polymerase chain reaction assay (PCR) searching for the presence of Leishmania spp. DNA. Amastigote forms of Leishmania sp, were observed in the smear prepared from one mosquito by microscopic examination, as well as other protozoa's flagellated forms. In the other insect it was observed Leishmania DNA amplification. This observation reinforces the role of dogs as sources of infection of Leishmania spp. even to other potential vector species.(AU)

No Brasil, os dípteros do gênero Lutzomyia são os principais vetores da leishmaniose para humanos e animais. No entanto, tem sido constatado que outras espécies de invertebrados hematófagos, como carrapatos, pulgas e mutucas, também podem ser vetores desse protozoário. Este trabalho, realizado em uma área endêmica de leishmaniose visceral, é a primeira descrição da presença de Leishmania spp. em mosquitos da espécie A. aegypti. Dois mosquitos A. aegypti foram capturados no local onde estava isolado um cão polissintomático acometido por leishmaniose visceral, confirmada pela demonstração do parasita em biópsias de órgãos e por resultado positivo na prova de PCR para Leishmania spp. Um dos mosquitos estava sugando o sangue do cão e o outro estava livre no ambiente. O mosquito ingurgitado com o sangue do animal foi esmagado entre duas lâminas de microscopia e o outro foi processado por meio da reação em cadeia pela polimerase (PCR) aplicada à pesquisa do ADN de Leishmania spp. Ao exame microscópico do esfregaço preparado com o mosquito que estava parasitando o cão foram observadas formas amastigotas de Leishmania spp., bem como formas flageladas de outra espécie de protozoário. No outro inseto foi detectada amplificação de ADN do gênero Leishmania. Esta constatação reforça o papel dos cães como fontes de infecção de Leishmania spp. até mesmo para outras espécies de vetores potenciais.(AU)

Ovicidal and larvicidal activity of extracts of Opuntia ficus-indica against gastrointestinal nematodes of naturally infected sheep.

This study describes the in vitro anthelmintic activity of extracts from Opuntia ficus indica against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep. The anthelmintic activity was evaluated by inhibition of egg hatching, larval development and larval migration assays. The residual aqueous fractions from cladodes and fruits showed higher ovicidal activity with EC50 values of 7.2mg/mL and 1.5mg/mL, respectively. The aqueous, hexane, and ethyl acetate fractions from fruits and the aqueous fraction from cladodes inhibited 100% of larval development at the lowest concentration tested (1.56mg/mL). The crude cladode and fruit ethanolic extracts inhibited larval migration and showed EC50 values of 0.74mg/mL and 0.27mg/mL, respectively. Phytochemical screening detected high concentrations of alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, and saponins in the fruits and cladodes. The results demonstrated that O. ficus exhibits anthelmintic activity in vitro, suggesting that, beyond its nutritional potential, this plant can also be an ally for parasite control in sheep.

Assessing the influence of geographic distance in parasite communities of an exotic lizard.

The decay of similarity between biological communities with increasing geographical distance is a well-established pattern in ecology, but there are more complex factors acting on host population connections that influence this association for parasite communities, such as parasites' colonization ability and degree of connectivity between host populations. Here we aim to determine the helminth communities associated with different populations of the host lizard Hemidactylus mabouia, testing if the similarity of parasite communities decreases as the distance between them increases. For this, we collected samples of lizard populations in seven sites from Northeastern coast of Brazil and identified parasite species of helminths and pentastomids in each host, calculated the Sørensen indices of presence/absence and abundance of each pair of communities and related them to the geographical distance. We did not find a relationship of decaying similarity with increasing distance between the parasite communities of the host populations. This can be explained by factors such as the characteristics of the contact between the host populations, and by modes of transmission of most parasite species. Furthermore, it may be related to the exotic nature of the host in Brazil so that parasite communities have not reached equilibrium.

Spatial-temporal variation of parasites in Cnemidophorus ocellifer (Teiidae) and Tropidurus hispidus and Tropidurus semitaeniatus (Tropiduridae) from Caatinga areas in northeastern Brazil.

Parasites are natural regulators of their host populations. Despite this, little is known about variations in parasite composition (spatially or temporally) in environments subjected to water-related periodic stress such as the arid and semiarid regions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the spatial-temporal variation in endoparasite species' abundance and richness in populations of Neotropical Cnemidophorus ocellifer, Tropidurus hispidus, and Tropidurus semitaeniatus lizards in the semiarid northeast of Brazil. The location influenced the abundance of parasites in all analyzed lizard species, while season (dry and rainy) only influenced the total abundance for T. hispidus. In all seasons, males significantly showed more endoparasites than females in all lizard species, although for T. hispidus, this difference was only found in the dry season. Seasonal variations affect the abundance patterns of parasites. Likely, variables include environmental variations such as humidity and temperature, which influence the development of endoparasite eggs when outside of the host. Further, the activity of the intermediate hosts and the parasites of heteroxenous life cycles could be affected by an environmental condition. The variation in the abundance of parasites between the sampling areas could be a reflection of variations in climate and physiochemical conditions. Also, it could be due to differences in the quality of the environment in which each host population lives.

Helminth fauna of two species of Physalaemus (Anura: Leiuperidae) from an undisturbed fragment of the Atlantic rainforest, southeastern Brazil.

Two amphibian species, Physalaemus cuvieri and Physalaemus olfersii, from Serra do Mar State Park, which is an old-growth environment of the Atlantic Rainforest in southeastern Brazil, were surveyed for endoparasites. Hosts were sampled in 2 ponds; each was colonized by only 1 Physalaemus species. The overall prevalence of helminths was high and similar in both amphibian species. The mean intensity of infection in P. olfersii did not differ statistically from that in P. cuvieri . Nine helminth species were found: 2 acanthocephalans, 1 cestode, and 6 nematodes. Parasite richness in the 2 host species was similar. The composition of helminth fauna differed but the 2 hosts shared the most prevalent taxon of nematode (an unidentified species of Cosmocercidae). All helminth species exhibited an aggregated distribution pattern in the host species. The present results demonstrate relatively low species richness and the dominance of generalist parasite species. This study contributes to knowledge regarding the structure and composition of the helminth community in anurans.

Assemblages of endophagous insects on Asteraceae in São Paulo cerrados.

A survey of the endophagous insects fauna associated to Asteraceae capitula was carried out from 2000 to 2002 in eight cerrado sensu stricto sites located in the Brazilian state of Sdo Paulo. Sixty-four endophagous species of Diptera and Lepidoptera were recorded from 49 asteracean host plants. Approximately half of the species were obtained from a single locality, with a large proportion emerging from a single sample (unicates). Thirty percent of the species were singletons (i.e. only one individual was recorded). The large proportion of rare species suggests a high species turnover among localities. Lepidopteran species were recorded on more host species than dipterans, confirming their more polyphagous food habit, also observed in other Brazilian biomes and in Europe. We conclude that the studied cerrado localities, all within São Paulo State, are isolated with its invertebrate fauna composed of many rare and exclusive species. We suggest that the maintenance of Asteraceae biodiversity and their endophagous insects depend on the conservation of all cerrado remnants in the state.

Assemblages of endophagous insects on Asteraceae in São Paulo Cerrados

A survey of the endophagous insects fauna associated to Asteraceae capitula was carried out from 2000 to 2002 in eight cerrado sensu stricto sites located in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. Sixty-four endophagous species of Diptera and Lepidoptera were recorded from 49 asteracean host plants. Approximately half of the species were obtained from a single locality, with a large proportion emerging from a single sample (unicates). Thirty percent of the species were singletons (i.e. only one individual was recorded). The large proportion of rare species suggests a high species turnover among localities. Lepidopteran species were recorded on more host species than dipterans, confirming their more polyphagous food habit, also observed in other Brazilian biomes and in Europe. We conclude that the studied cerrado localities, all within São Paulo State, are isolated with its invertebrate fauna composed of many rare and exclusive species. We suggest that the maintenance of Asteraceae biodiversity and their endophagous insects depend on the conservation of all cerrado remnants in the state.

No presente estudo foi realizado um levantamento da fauna de insetos endófagos de capítulos de Asteraceae (Compostas), de 2000 a 2002, em oito localidades de cerrados sensu stricto no estado de São Paulo. Foram obtidas 64 espécies de endófagos (dípteros e lepidópteros) de 49 espécies de hospedeiras. Aproximadamente metade das espécies foi obtida de apenas uma área, e destas uma grande proporção ocorreu em apenas uma amostra (unicatas). Trinta por cento das espécies foram consideradas "singletons" (apenas um indivíduo foi obtido). A grande quantidade de espécies raras sugere uma forte troca de espécies entre diferentes áreas. Lepidópteros foram registrados em mais espécies hospedeiras que dípteros, confirmando o já observado para o mesmo sistema de insetos e plantas em outros ambientes no Brasil e Europa. As áreas de cerrado sensu stricto estudadas no estado de São Paulo encontram-se isoladas, com uma grande parte da fauna de invertebrados composta por muitas espécies raras e exclusivas. Diante deste quadro, sugere-se que a manutenção da biodiversidade de Asteraceae e seus endófagos em seus níveis atuais depende da conservação de todo o conjunto de remanescentes de cerrado do estado.

Diversidade e ocorrência de Asteraceae em cerrados de São Paulo

De abril a maio de 2000 a 2002 oito localidades com remanescentes de cerrados sensu stricto no estado de São Paulo foram amostradas para o levantamento das espécies de asteráceas, uma das famílias mais representativas da flora herbáceo-arbustiva nestas formações. Foram feitas 23 amostragens e cada área de estudo foi amostrada em média uma vez por ano durante o pico de floração das plantas. Ao todo foram obtidas 399 amostras, nas quais foram reconhecidas 89 morfoespécies (74 foram identificadas como espécies conhecidas). Quarenta por cento das espécies foram registradas uma única vez (unicatas), indicando um grande número de espécies raras. Apenas 10 por cento das espécies que ocorreram em mais de uma amostra foram obtidas de uma mesma área (sobreposição espacial) ou de um mesmo ano de estudo (sobreposição temporal). A riqueza de espécies em cada área foi estimada por meio de transeções e depois comparada à riqueza total observada em cada área de estudo, sendo esta na maioria das vezes mais alta que a estimada com base nas transeções. A lista de espécies obtida para os cerrados amostrados foi comparada a outras 24 listas publicadas para cerrados no Brasil. Embora a maioria das espécies mais comuns tenha coincidido, oito espécies (11 por cento das espécies identificadas) não constam das listas publicadas. Concluímos que as áreas de cerrado sensu stricto estudadas no estado de São Paulo encontram-se isoladas, com uma grande parte da flora herbáceo-arbustiva composta por várias espécies raras e exclusivas. Diante deste quadro, sugerimos que a manutenção da biodiversidade de Asteraceae depende da conservação de todo o conjunto de remanescentes de cerrado do estado de São Paulo.