Antler development was inhibited or stimulated by cryosurgery to periosteum or skin in a central antlerogenic region respectively.

Antler development is triggered by interactions between antler stem cells resident in the antlerogenic periosteum (AP) and the niche cells in the upper portion of overlying skin mediated by diffusible molecules. These interactive cell populations are interposed by the lower portion of the skin and the subcutaneous loose connective tissue (SLCT). It is known that mechanical deletion of just the central AP (having an area equivalent to the size of a pedicle base) by cutting through the skin and SLCT effectively stimulates the marginal AP to initiate antler development. This study was designed to investigate whether the SLCT layer plays a role in antler development by acting as a physical barrier. The results showed that the marginal AP failed to give rise to an antler after the central AP was cryosurgically destroyed with the preservation of the collagen structure of the SLCT. Furthermore, antler development was significantly advanced when the collagen structures of the skin and SLCT layers were substantially attenuated by repeated sprays with liquid nitrogen while keeping the central AP intact. Therefore, we conclude that the interposing SLCT layer acts as a physical barrier between antler stem cells and the niche cell types, and that timing of antler development is primarily controlled by the permeability of the SLCT layer to the putative interactive diffusible molecules.

Red deer cloned from antler stem cells and their differentiated progeny.

The significance of donor cell differentiation status for successful cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is unclear. Here, we cloned a new species, red deer (Cervus elaphus), from multipotent antler stem cells and their differentiated progeny. Cultured donor cell lines from male antlerogenic periosteum (AP) were left undifferentiated or chemically induced to initiate osteogenesis or adipogenesis. Based on their morphology and marker gene expression profile, donor cells were classified as undifferentiated AP cells, presumptive osteoblasts, or adipocytes. Adipocytes upregulated adipogenic markers procollagen type I alpha 2 (COL1A2), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma 2 (PPARG), and gylceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and downregulated antlerogenic transcripts POU-domain class 5 transcription factor (POU5F1) and parathyroid hormone (PTH)-like hormone (PTHLH). Despite differences prior to NT, transcript abundance of donor-specific markers COL1A2, PPARG, GAPDH, and POU5F1 did not differ significantly in cloned blastocysts (P = 0.10, 0.50, 0.61, and 0.16, respectively). However, donor cell and blastocyst expression levels were completely different for most genes analyzed, indicating their successful reprogramming. The type of donor cell used for NT (AP, bone, and fat cells), had no effect on in vitro development to blastocysts (93 [38%] of 248 vs. 32 [44%] of 73 vs. 59 [32%] of 183, respectively). Likewise, development to weaning was not significantly different between the three cell types (2 [4%] of 46 vs. 2 [29%] of 7 vs. 4 [13%] of 31, for AP vs. bone vs. fat, respectively). Microsatellite DNA analysis confirmed that the eight cloned red deer calves were genetically identical to the cells used for NT.