A model-based head-to-head comparison of single-agent lurbinectedin in the pivotal ATLANTIS Study.

Introduction: Lurbinectedin is a selective inhibitor of oncogenic transcription U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved for patients with relapsed small cell lung cancer (SCLC) as monotherapy at 3.2 mg/m2 every 3 weeks (q3wk). ATLANTIS was a phase 3 study in SCLC with lurbinectedin 2.0 mg/m2 plus doxorubicin 40 mg/m2 q3wk vs physician's choice, with overall survival (OS) as the primary endpoint and objective response rate (ORR) as the secondary endpoint. This work aimed to dissect the contribution of lurbinectedin and doxorubicin to antitumor effects in SCLC, and to predict the efficacy of single-agent lurbinectedin at 3.2 mg/m2 in ATLANTIS to allow for a head-to-head comparison with the control arm. Methods: The dataset included exposure and efficacy data from 387 patients with relapsed SCLC (ATLANTIS, n=288; study B-005, n=99). Patients in the ATLANTIS control arm (n=289) were used for comparison. Unbound plasma lurbinectedin area under the concentration-time curve (AUCu) and total plasma doxorubicin area under the concentration-time curve (AUCDOX) were used as exposure metrics. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to determine the best predictors and predictive model for OS and ORR. OS baseline hazard was best described by a log-logistic distribution, with chemotherapy-free interval (CTFI), lactate dehydrogenase, albumin, brain metastases, neutrophils/lymphocytes ratio, AUCu, and the interaction between AUCu and AUCDOX as predictors. Effect of AUCu on ORR best fitted to a sigmoid-maximal response (Emax) logistic model, where Emax was dependent on CTFI. Results: Head-to-head comparisons with predicted 3.2 mg/m2 lurbinectedin resulted in a positive outcome in ATLANTIS, with hazard ratio (95% prediction intervals [95% PI]) for OS of 0.54 (0.41, 0.72), and odds ratio (95% PI) for ORR of 0.35 (0.25, 0.5). Conclusion: These results support the superiority of lurbinectedin monotherapy for relapsed SCLC over other approved therapies.

Optimization of levetiracetam dosing regimen in critically ill patients with augmented renal clearance: a Monte Carlo simulation study.

BACKGROUND: Levetiracetam pharmacokinetics is extensively altered in critically ill patients with augmented renal clearance (ARC). Consequently, the dosage regimens commonly used in clinical practice may not be sufficient to achieve target plasma concentrations. The aim of this study is to propose alternative dosage regimens able to achieve target concentrations in this population. Furthermore, the feasibility of the proposed dosing regimens will be discussed from a clinical point of view. METHODS: Different dosage regimens for levetiracetam were evaluated in critically ill patients with ARC. Monte Carlo simulations were conducted with extended or continuous infusions and/or high drug doses using a previously developed population pharmacokinetic model. To assess the clinical feasibility of the proposed dosages, we carried out a literature search to evaluate the information on toxicity and efficacy of continuous administration or high doses, as well as the post-dilution stability of levetiracetam. RESULTS: According to the simulations, target concentrations in patients with CrCl of 160 or 200 mL/min can be achieved with the 3000 mg daily dose by prolonging the infusion time of levetiracetam. For patients with CrCl of 240 mL/min, it would be necessary to administer doses higher than the maximum recommended. Available evidence suggests that levetiracetam administration in continuous infusion or at higher doses than those approved seems to be safe. It would be desirable to re-examinate the current recommendations about drug stability and to achieve a consensus in this issue. CONCLUSIONS: Conventional dosage regimens of levetiracetam (500-1500 mg twice daily in a short infusion) do not allow obtaining drug plasma concentrations among the defined target in critically ill patients with ARC. Therefore, new dosing guidelines with specific recommendations for patients in this subpopulation are needed. This study proposes new dosages for levetiracetam, including extended (4 or 6 h) infusions, continuous infusions or the administration of doses higher than the recommended in the summary of product characteristics (> 3000 mg). These new dosage recommendations take into account biopharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic aspects and meet feasibility criteria, which allow them to be transferred to the clinical environment with safety and efficacy. Nevertheless, further clinical studies are needed to confirm these results.

Population Pharmacokinetics of Levetiracetam and Dosing Evaluation in Critically Ill Patients with Normal or Augmented Renal Function.

Levetiracetam is a broad-spectrum antiepileptic drug commonly used in intensive care units (ICUs). The objective of this study is to evaluate the adequacy of levetiracetam dosing in patients with normal or augmented renal clearance (ARC) admitted to the ICU by population modelling and simulation. A multicentre prospective study including twenty-seven critically ill patients with urinary creatinine clearance (CrCl) > 50 mL/min and treated with levetiracetam was developed. Levetiracetam plasma concentrations were best described by a two-compartment model. The parameter estimates and relative standard errors (%) were clearance (CL) 3.5 L/h (9%), central volume of distribution (V1) 20.7 L (18%), intercompartmental clearance 31.9 L/h (22%), and peripheral volume of distribution 33.5 L (13%). Interindividual variability estimates were, for the CL, 32.7% (21%) and, for V1, 56.1% (29%). The CrCl showed significant influence over CL. Simulations showed that the administration of at least 500 mg every 8 h or 1000 mg every 12 h are needed in patients with normal renal function. Higher doses (1500 or 2000 mg, every 8 h) are needed in patients with ARC. Critically ill patients with normal or ARC treated with levetiracetam could be at high risk of being underdosed.

A quantitative systems pharmacology model for acute viral hepatitis B.

Hepatitis B liver infection is caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and represents a major global disease problem when it becomes chronic, as is the case for 80-90% of vertical or early life infections. However, in the vast majority (>95%) of adult exposures, the infected individuals are capable of mounting an effective immune response leading to infection resolution. A good understanding of HBV dynamics and the interaction between the virus and immune system during acute infection represents an essential step to characterize and understand the key biological processes involved in disease resolution, which may help to identify potential interventions to prevent chronic hepatitis B. In this work, a quantitative systems pharmacology model for acute hepatitis B characterizing viral dynamics and the main components of the innate, adaptive, and tolerant immune response has been successfully developed. To do so, information from multiple sources and across different organization levels has been integrated in a common mechanistic framework. The final model adequately describes the chronology and plausibility of an HBV-triggered immune response, as well as clinical data from acute patients reported in the literature. Given the holistic nature of the framework, the model can be used to illustrate the relevance of the different immune pathways and biological processes to ultimate response, observing the negligible contribution of the innate response and the key contribution of the cellular response on viral clearance. More specifically, moderate reductions of the proliferation of activated cytotoxic CD8+ lymphocytes or increased immunoregulatory effects can drive the system towards chronicity.

Zein Nanoparticles Improve the Oral Bioavailability of Curcumin in Wistar Rats.

Curcumin is a natural compound obtained from turmeric root with high antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, clinical application of curcumin has been limited due to its low solubility and bioavailability and rapid metabolism and degradation. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of curcumin incorporation in zein nanoparticles on the pharmacokinetic parameters of systemic curcumin in plasma. Wistar rats were administered a single oral dose of 250 mg/kg of standard curcumin (control) or nanocurcumin (zein-based nanoparticles, Nucaps). The proposed new formulation was also compared with two commercially available curcumin complexes. Blood samples were collected at different times, and plasma levels were determined using HPLC-MS/MS. Overall, nanocurcumin (Nucaps) formulation was well tolerated and showed a 9-fold increase in oral bioavailability when compared to the standard curcumin natural extract. In addition, the nanoparticles prepared in this study demonstrated a bioavailability profile superior to that of other bioavailability-enhanced curcumin complexes currently available in the marketplace. Thus, our nanoparticle-based formulation has shown great potential as a nutraceutical for the oral administration of curcumin.

Predicting circulating biomarker response and its impact on the survival of advanced melanoma patients treated with adjuvant therapy.

Advanced melanoma remains a disease with poor prognosis. Several serologic markers have been investigated to help monitoring and prognostication, but to date only lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) has been validated as a standard prognostic factor biomarker for this disease by the American Joint Committee on Cancer. In this work, we built a semi-mechanistic model to explore the relationship between the time course of several circulating biomarkers and overall or progression free survival in advanced melanoma patients treated with adjuvant high-dose interferon-[Formula: see text]. Additionally, due to the adverse interferon tolerability, a semi-mechanistic model describing the side effects of the treatment in the absolute neutrophil counts is proposed in order to simultaneously analyze the benefits and toxic effects of this treatment. The results of our analysis suggest that the relative change from baseline of LDH was the most significant predictor of the overall survival of the patients. Unfortunately, there was no significant difference in the proportion of patients with elevated serum biomarkers between the patients who recurred and those who remained free of disease. Still, we believe that the modelling framework presented in this work of circulating biomarkers and adverse effects could constitute an additional strategy for disease monitoring in advance melanoma patients.

Novel Population Pharmacokinetic Model for Linezolid in Critically Ill Patients and Evaluation of the Adequacy of the Current Dosing Recommendation.

Antimicrobial treatment in critically ill patients remains challenging. The aim of this study was to develop a population pharmacokinetic model for linezolid in critically ill patients and to evaluate the adequacy of current dosing recommendation (600 mg/12 h). Forty inpatients were included, 23 of whom were subjected to continuous renal replacement therapies (CRRT). Blood and effluent samples were drawn after linezolid administration at defined time points, and linezolid levels were measured. A population pharmacokinetic model was developed, using NONMEM 7.3. The percentage of patients that achieved the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) targets was calculated (AUC24/MIC > 80 and 100% T>MIC). A two-compartment model best described the pharmacokinetics of linezolid. Elimination was conditioned by the creatinine clearance and by the extra-corporeal clearance if the patient was subjected to CRRT. For most patients, the standard dose of linezolid did not cover infections caused by pathogens with MIC ≥ 2 mg/L. Continuous infusion may be an alternative, especially when renal function is preserved.

A Quantitative Systems Pharmacology Model for the Key Interleukins Involved in Crohn's Disease.

Crohn's disease (CD) is a complex inflammatory bowel disease whose pathogenesis appears to involve several immunologic defects causing functional impairment of the gut. Its complexity and the reported loss of effectiveness over time of standard of care together with the increase in its worldwide incidence require the application of techniques aiming to find new therapeutic strategies. Currently, systems pharmacology modeling has been gaining importance as it integrates the available knowledge of the system into a single computational model. In this work, the following workflow for robust application of systems pharmacology modeling was followed: 1) scope definition; 2) species selection and circulating plasma levels based on a search in the literature; 3) representation of model topology and parametrization of the interactions, after literature data extraction and curation, and the implementation of ordinary differential equations in SimBiology (MATLAB version R2018b); and 4) model curation and evaluation by visual comparison of simulated interleukin (IL) concentrations with the reported levels in plasma, and sensitivity analysis performed to confirm model robustness and identify the most influential parameters. Finally, 5) exposure to two dose levels of recombinant human IL10 was evaluated by simulation and comparison with reported clinical study results. In summary, we present a quantitative systems pharmacology model for the main ILs involved in CD developed using a standardized methodology and supported by a comprehensive repository summarizing the most relevant literature in the field. However, it has to be taken into account that external validation is still pending as available clinical data were primarily used for model training. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Crohn's disease (CD) is a complex heterogeneous inflammatory bowel disorder. Systems pharmacology modeling offers a great opportunity for integration of the available knowledge on the disease using a computational framework. As a result of this work, a comprehensive repository along with a quantitative systems pharmacology model for the main interleukins involved in CD is provided. This model is useful for the in silico evaluation of biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets and can be adapted to address research gaps regarding CD.

Immune network for viral hepatitis B: Topological representation.

The liver is a well-known immunotolerogenic environment, which provides the adequate setting for liver infectious pathogens persistence such as the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Consequently, HBV infection can derive in the development of chronic disease in a proportion of the patients. If this situation persists in time, chronic hepatitis B (CHB) would end in cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma and eventually, the death of the patient. It is thought that this immunotolerogenic environment is the result of complex interactions between different elements of the immune system and the viral biology. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to unravel the mechanisms implied in the development of CHB and to design a tool able to help in the study of adequate therapies. Firstly, a conceptual framework with the main components of the immune system and viral dynamics was constructed providing an overall insight on the pathways and interactions implied in this disease. Secondly, a review of the literature was performed in a modular fashion: (i) viral dynamics, (ii) innate immune response, (iii) humoral and (iv) cellular adaptive immune responses and (v) tolerogenic aspects. Finally, the information collected was integrated into a single topological representation that could serve as the plan for the systems pharmacology model architecture. This representation can be considered as the previous unavoidable step to the construction of a quantitative model that could assist in biomarker and target identification, drug design and development, dosing optimization and disease progression analysis.

Colo-Pro: a pilot randomised controlled trial to compare standard bolus-dosed cefuroxime prophylaxis to bolus-continuous infusion-dosed cefuroxime prophylaxis for the prevention of infections after colorectal surgery.

Standard bolus-dosed antibiotic prophylaxis may not inhibit growth of antibiotic resistant colonic bacteria, a cause of SSIs after colorectal surgery. An alternative strategy is continuous administration of antibiotic throughout surgery, maintaining concentrations of antibiotics that inhibit growth of resistant bacteria. This study is a pilot comparing bolus-continuous infusion with bolus-dosed cefuroxime prophylaxis in colorectal surgery. This is a pilot randomised controlled trial in which participants received cefuroxime bolus-infusion (intervention arm) targeting free serum cefuroxime concentrations of 64 mg/L, or 1.5 g cefuroxime as a bolus dose four-hourly (standard arm). Patients in both arms received metronidazole (500 mg intravenously). Eligible participants were adults undergoing colorectal surgery expected to last for over 2 h. Results were analysed on an intention-to-treat basis. The study was successfully piloted, with 46% (90/196) of eligible patients recruited and 89% (80/90) of participants completing all components of the protocol. A trialled bolus-continuous dosing regimen was successful in maintaining free serum cefuroxime concentrations of 64 mg/L. No serious adverse reactions were identified. Rates of SSIs (superficial and deep SSIs) were lower in the intervention arm than the standard treatment arm (24% (10/42) vs. 30% (13/43)), as were infection within 30 days of operation (41% (17/43) vs 51% (22/43)) and urinary tract infections (2% (1/42) vs. 9% (4/43)). These infection rates can be used to power future clinical trials. This study demonstrates the feasibility of cefuroxime bolus-continuous infusion of antibiotic prophylaxis trials, and provides safety data for infusions targeting free serum cefuroxime concentrations of 64 mg/L. Trial registration: NCT02445859 .

The Long Neglected Player: Modeling Tumor Uptake to Guide Optimal Dosing.

Pharmacokinetic modeling, traditionally using drug exposure, is widely used to support decision-making in translational medicine and patient care. The development of mechanistic computational models that integrate drug concentrations at the site of action making use of existing knowledge opens a new paradigm in optimal dosing. Clin Cancer Res; 24(14); 3236-8. ©2018 AACRSee related article by Ribba et al., p. 3325.

Applications of the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) analysis of antimicrobial agents.

The alarming increase of resistance against multiple currently available antibiotics is leading to a rapid lose of treatment options against infectious diseases. Since the antibiotic resistance is partially due to a misuse or abuse of the antibiotics, this situation can be reverted when improving their use. One strategy is the optimization of the antimicrobial dosing regimens. In fact, inappropriate drug choice and suboptimal dosing are two major factors that should be considered because they lead to the emergence of drug resistance and consequently, poorer clinical outcomes. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) analysis in combination with Monte Carlo simulation allows to optimize dosing regimens of the antibiotic agents in order to conserve their therapeutic value. Therefore, the aim of this review is to explain the basis of the PK/PD analysis and associated techniques, and provide a brief revision of the applications of PK/PD analysis from a therapeutic point-of-view. The establishment and reevaluation of clinical breakpoints is the sticking point in antibiotic therapy as the clinical use of the antibiotics depends on them. Two methodologies are described to establish the PK/PD breakpoints, which are a big part of the clinical breakpoint setting machine. Furthermore, the main subpopulations of patients with altered characteristics that can condition the PK/PD behavior (such as critically ill, elderly, pediatric or obese patients) and therefore, the outcome of the antibiotic therapy, are reviewed. Finally, some recommendations are provided from a PK/PD point of view to enhance the efficacy of prophylaxis protocols used in surgery.

Population pharmacokinetic models for cefuroxime and metronidazole used in combination as prophylactic agents in colorectal surgery: Model-based evaluation of standard dosing regimens.

The antibiotics used for prophylaxis in colorectal surgery must maintain appropriate plasma concentrations during the entire surgery to avoid surgical site infections caused by aerobes and anaerobes; cefuroxime plus metronidazole is one of the combinations used. The aim of this study was to evaluate the adequacy of cefuroxime plus metronidazole administration as prophylaxis in colorectal surgery. In total, 63 patients electively undergoing rectal or colon surgery were administered 1500mg of cefuroxime and 1500mg of metronidazole in 15-min and 1-h infusions, respectively, prior to surgery. Blood samples were withdrawn during and after surgery for determination of plasma concentrations by high-performance liquid chromatography. Population pharmacokinetic models were developed using NONMEM 7.2.0. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) simulations were performed to explore the ability of different dosage regimens to achieve the pharmacodynamic targets. Pharmacokinetics for both antibiotics were best described by a two-compartment model. Elimination of cefuroxime was conditioned by creatinine clearance (CLCr). The half-life of cefuroxime was 1.5h for patients with normal renal function and 4.9h in patients with renal impairment. Elimination and distribution of metronidazole were affected by patient body weight (BW). PK/PD analysis revealed that a single-dose protocol of 1500mg of cefuroxime and metronidazole is adequate in short surgeries (≤2h). However, for longer surgeries, recommendations are suggested depending on the patient's CLCr and BW. Additional doses of cefuroxime are needed for patients with moderate renal impairment or those presenting normal renal function. For metronidazole, an additional dose is needed for patients with a BW of 90kg.

Effect of reducing the paediatric stavudine dose by half: a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model.

Owing to significant dose-related toxicity, the adult stavudine dose was reduced in 2007. The paediatric dose, however, has not been reduced. Although the intended paediatric dose is 1 mg/kg twice daily (b.i.d.), the current weight-band dosing approach results in a mean actual dose of 1.23±0.47 mg/kg. Both efficacy and mitochondrial toxicity depend on the concentration of the intracellular metabolite stavudine triphosphate (d4T-TP). We simulated the effect of reducing the paediatric dose to 0.5 mg/kg. A physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model consisting of 13 tissue compartments plus a full ADAM model was used to describe the elimination of stavudine. The volume of distribution at steady-state and apparent oral clearance were simulated and the resulting AUC profile was compared with literature data in adult and paediatric populations. A biochemical reaction model was utilised to simulate intracellular d4T-TP levels for both the standard and proposed reduced paediatric doses. Simulated and observed exposure after oral dosing showed adequate agreement. Mean steady-state d4T-TP for 1.23 mg/kg b.i.d. was 27.9 (90% CI 27.0-28.9) fmol/10(6) cells, 25% higher than that achieved by the 40 mg adult dose. The 0.5 mg/kg dose resulted in d4T-TP of 13.2 (12.7-13.7) fmol/10(6) cells, slightly higher than the adult dose of 20 mg b.i.d. [11.5 (11.2-11.9) fmol/10(6) cells], which has excellent antiviral efficacy and substantially less toxicity. Current paediatric dosing may result in even higher d4T-TP than the original 40 mg adult dose. Halving the paediatric dose would significantly reduce the risk of mitochondrial toxicity without compromising antiviral efficacy.

Predicting pediatric age-matched weight and body mass index.

The empirical scaling from adult to pediatric using allometric size adjustments based on body weight continued to be the mainstream method for pediatric dose selection. Due to the flexibility of a polynomial function to conform to the data trend, an empirical function for simulating age-matched weight and body mass index by gender in the pediatric population is developed by using a polynomial function and a constant coefficient to describe the interindividual variability in weight. A polynomial of up to fifth order sufficiently described the pediatric data from the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The coefficients of variation to describe the variability were within 17%. The percentages of the CDC simulated weights for pediatrics between 0 and 5 years that fell outside the WHO 90% and 95% confidence boundaries were well within the expected percentage values, indicating that the CDC dataset can be used to substitute for the WHO dataset for the purpose of pediatric drug development. To illustrate the utility of this empirical function, the CDC-based age-matched weights were simulated and were used in the prediction of the concentration-time profiles of tenofovir in children based on a population pharmacokinetic model whose parameters were allometrically scaled. We have shown that the resulting 95% prediction interval of tenofovir in newborn to 5 years of age was almost identical whether the weights were simulated based on WHO or CDC dataset. The approach is simple and is broadly applicable in adjusting for pediatric dosages using allometry.

Population pharmacokinetics of piperacillin and tazobactam in critically ill patients undergoing continuous renal replacement therapy: application to pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the pharmacokinetics of piperacillin/tazobactam in critically ill patients undergoing continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) and to assess the success of the therapy against susceptible bacteria. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Sixteen patients undergoing CRRT with different degrees of renal function were included in the study. Blood and ultrafiltrate samples were drawn after administration of piperacillin/tazobactam (4/0.5 g) every 4, 6 or 8 h. The data were analysed by a population approach using NONMEM 7.2. The probability of target attainment (PTA) of maintaining free piperacillin levels above the MIC during the entire dosing interval was estimated by simulation of intermittent and continuous infusions. RESULTS: The pharmacokinetics of piperacillin and tazobactam were best described by two-compartment models where the elimination of both drugs was conditioned by renal [dependent on creatinine clearance (CLCR)], non-renal and extracorporeal clearances. A 20 min infusion of piperacillin/tazobactam administered every 6 h provided high PTAs against MICs ≤ 32 mg/L in patients with severe renal failure. In patients with normal or moderate renal function PTAs ≥ 90% were only obtained up to MICs ≤ 8 mg/L with short infusions. However, simulating continuous infusion, higher probabilities of success were obtained against MICs of 32 and 16 mg/L when CLCR was 50 and 100 mL/min, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Population pharmacokinetic models have been developed and validated for piperacillin and tazobactam. Based on the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis, dosing recommendations are given considering the residual renal function of the patient and the MIC for the isolated bacteria.