SAM68 directs STING signaling to apoptosis in macrophages.

DNA is a danger signal sensed by cGAS to engage signaling through STING to activate innate immune functions. The best-studied downstream responses to STING activation include expression of type I interferon and inflammatory genes, but STING also activates other pathways, including apoptosis. Here, we report that STING-dependent induction of apoptosis in macrophages occurs through the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway and is mediated via IRF3 but acts independently of gene transcription. By intersecting four mass spectrometry datasets, we identify SAM68 as crucial for the induction of apoptosis downstream of STING activation. SAM68 is essential for the full activation of apoptosis. Still, it is not required for STING-mediated activation of IFN expression or activation of NF-κB. Mechanistic studies reveal that protein trafficking is required and involves SAM68 recruitment to STING upon activation, with the two proteins associating at the Golgi or a post-Golgi compartment. Collectively, our work identifies SAM68 as a STING-interacting protein enabling induction of apoptosis through this DNA-activated innate immune pathway.

The HIF transcription network exerts innate antiviral activity in neurons and limits brain inflammation.

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) induce host defense but can also induce exacerbated inflammatory responses. This raises the question of whether other mechanisms are also involved in early host defense. Using transcriptome analysis of disrupted transcripts in herpes simplex virus (HSV)-infected cells, we find that HSV infection disrupts the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) transcription network in neurons and epithelial cells. Importantly, HIF activation leads to control of HSV replication. Mechanistically, HIF activation induces autophagy, which is essential for antiviral activity. HSV-2 infection in vivo leads to hypoxia in CNS neurons, and mice with neuron-specific HIF1/2α deficiency exhibit elevated viral load and augmented PRR signaling and inflammatory gene expression in the CNS after HSV-2 infection. Data from human stem cell-derived neuron and microglia cultures show that HIF also exerts antiviral and inflammation-restricting activity in human CNS cells. Collectively, the HIF transcription factor system senses virus-induced hypoxic stress to induce cell-intrinsic antiviral responses and limit inflammation.

Tracking Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Response to Physical Contact with Infected Cells.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are key regulators of both innate and adaptive immunity via varied functions, including cytokine production and antigen presentation. Plasmacytoid DC (pDC) is a DC subset specialized in the production of type I and III interferons (IFNs). They are thus pivotal players of the host antiviral response during the acute phase of infection by genetically distant viruses. The pDC response is primarily triggered by the endolysosomal sensors Toll-like receptors, which recognize nucleic acids from pathogens. In some pathologic contexts, pDC response can also be triggered by host nucleic acids, hereby contributing to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, such as, e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus. Importantly, recent in vitro studies from our laboratory and others uncovered that pDCs sense viral infections when a physical contact is established with infected cells. This specialized synapse-like feature enables a robust type I and III IFN secretion at the infected site. Therefore, this concentrated and confined response likely limits the correlated deleterious impacts of excessive cytokine production to the host, notably due to tissue damages. Here we provide a pipeline of methods for ex vivo studies of pDC antiviral functions, designed to address how pDC activation is regulated by cell-cell contact with virally infected cells and the current approaches enabling to decipher the underlying molecular events leading to an efficient antiviral response.

Characterization of distinct molecular interactions responsible for IRF3 and IRF7 phosphorylation and subsequent dimerization.

IRF3 and IRF7 are critical transcription factors in the innate immune response. Their activation is controlled by phosphorylation events, leading to the formation of homodimers that are transcriptionally active. Phosphorylation occurs when IRF3 is recruited to adaptor proteins via a positively charged surface within the regulatory domain of IRF3. This positively charged surface also plays a crucial role in forming the active homodimer by interacting with the phosphorylated sites stabilizing the homodimer. Here, we describe a distinct molecular interaction that is responsible for adaptor docking and hence phosphorylation as well as a separate interaction responsible for the formation of active homodimer. We then demonstrate that IRF7 can be activated by both MAVS and STING in a manner highly similar to that of IRF3 but with one key difference. Regulation of IRF7 appears more tightly controlled; while a single phosphorylation event is sufficient to activate IRF3, at least two phosphorylation events are required for IRF7 activation.

Author Correction: STEEP mediates STING ER exit and activation of signaling.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

STEEP mediates STING ER exit and activation of signaling.

STING is essential for control of infections and for tumor immunosurveillance, but it can also drive pathological inflammation. STING resides on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and traffics following stimulation to the ERGIC/Golgi, where signaling occurs. Although STING ER exit is the rate-limiting step in STING signaling, the mechanism that drives this process is not understood. Here we identify STEEP as a positive regulator of STING signaling. STEEP was associated with STING and promoted trafficking from the ER. This was mediated through stimulation of phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PtdIns(3)P) production and ER membrane curvature formation, thus inducing COPII-mediated ER-to-Golgi trafficking of STING. Depletion of STEEP impaired STING-driven gene expression in response to virus infection in brain tissue and in cells from patients with STING-associated diseases. Interestingly, STING gain-of-function mutants from patients interacted strongly with STEEP, leading to increased ER PtdIns(3)P levels and membrane curvature. Thus, STEEP enables STING signaling by promoting ER exit.

Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells and Infected Cells Form an Interferogenic Synapse Required for Antiviral Responses.

Type I interferon (IFN-I) is critical for antiviral defense, and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are a predominant source of IFN-I during virus infection. pDC-mediated antiviral responses are stimulated upon physical contact with infected cells, during which immunostimulatory viral RNA is transferred to pDCs, leading to IFN production via the nucleic acid sensor TLR7. Using dengue, hepatitis C, and Zika viruses, we demonstrate that the contact site of pDCs with infected cells is a specialized platform we term the interferogenic synapse, which enables viral RNA transfer and antiviral responses. This synapse is formed via αLß2 integrin-ICAM-1 adhesion complexes and the recruitment of the actin network and endocytic machinery. TLR7 signaling in pDCs promotes interferogenic synapse establishment and provides feed-forward regulation, sustaining pDC contacts with infected cells. This interferogenic synapse may allow pDCs to scan infected cells and locally secrete IFN-I, thereby confining a potentially deleterious response.

Sensing of cell-associated HTLV by plasmacytoid dendritic cells is regulated by dense ß-galactoside glycosylation.

Human T Lymphotropic virus (HTLV) infection can persist in individuals resulting, at least in part, from viral escape of the innate immunity, including inhibition of type I interferon response in infected T-cells. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are known to bypass viral escape by their robust type I interferon production. Here, we demonstrated that pDCs produce type I interferons upon physical cell contact with HTLV-infected cells, yet pDC activation inversely correlates with the ability of the HTLV-producing cells to transmit infection. We show that pDCs sense surface associated-HTLV present with glycan-rich structure referred to as biofilm-like structure, which thus represents a newly described viral structure triggering the antiviral response by pDCs. Consistently, heparan sulfate proteoglycans and especially the cell surface pattern of terminal ß-galactoside glycosylation, modulate the transmission of the immunostimulatory RNA to pDCs. Altogether, our results uncover a function of virus-containing cell surface-associated glycosylated structures in the activation of innate immunity.

Intracellular bacteria engage a STING-TBK1-MVB12b pathway to enable paracrine cGAS-STING signalling.

The innate immune system is crucial for eventual control of infections, but may also contribute to pathology. Listeria monocytogenes is an intracellular Gram-positive bacteria and a major cause of food-borne disease. However, important knowledge on the interactions between L. monocytogenes and the immune system is still missing. Here, we report that Listeria DNA is sorted into extracellular vesicles (EVs) in infected cells and delivered to bystander cells to stimulate the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway. This was also observed during infections with Francisella tularensis and Legionella pneumophila. We identify the multivesicular body protein MVB12b as a target for TANK-binding kinase 1 phosphorylation, which is essential for the sorting of DNA into EVs and stimulation of bystander cells. EVs from Listeria-infected cells inhibited T-cell proliferation, and primed T cells for apoptosis. Collectively, we describe a pathway for EV-mediated delivery of foreign DNA to bystander cells, and suggest that intracellular bacteria exploit this pathway to impair antibacterial defence.

Monitoring of Interferon Response Triggered by Cells Infected by Hepatitis C Virus or Other Viruses Upon Cell-Cell Contact.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) constitute a unique DC subset specialized in rapid and massive secretion of cytokines, including type I interferon (i.e., IFNα and IFNß), known to be pivotal for both innate immunity and the onset of adaptive response. The production of type I IFNs by pDCs is primarily induced by the recognition of viral nucleic acids through Toll-like receptor (TLR)-7 and -9 sensors located in the endolysosomal compartment. Importantly, in the context of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, pDC type I IFN response is triggered by the sensing of infected cells via physical cell-cell contact. Such a feature is also observed for many genetically distant viruses, including notably viruses of the Retroviridae, Arenaviridae, Flaviviridae, Picornaviridaea, Togaviridae families and observed for various infected cell types. Here, we described a set of experimental methods for the ex vivo studies of the regulation of pDC activation upon physical cell-cell contact with virally infected cells.

Interference with the production of infectious viral particles and bimodal inhibition of replication are broadly conserved antiviral properties of IFITMs.

IFITMs are broad antiviral factors that block incoming virions in endosomal vesicles, protecting target cells from infection. In the case of HIV-1, we and others reported the existence of an additional antiviral mechanism through which IFITMs lead to the production of virions of reduced infectivity. However, whether this second mechanism of inhibition is unique to HIV or extends to other viruses is currently unknown. To address this question, we have analyzed the susceptibility of a broad spectrum of viruses to the negative imprinting of the virion particles infectivity by IFITMs. The results we have gathered indicate that this second antiviral property of IFITMs extends well beyond HIV and we were able to identify viruses susceptible to the three IFITMs altogether (HIV-1, SIV, MLV, MPMV, VSV, MeV, EBOV, WNV), as well as viruses that displayed a member-specific susceptibility (EBV, DUGV), or were resistant to all IFITMs (HCV, RVFV, MOPV, AAV). The swapping of genetic elements between resistant and susceptible viruses allowed us to point to specificities in the viral mode of assembly, rather than glycoproteins as dominant factors of susceptibility. However, we also show that, contrarily to X4-, R5-tropic HIV-1 envelopes confer resistance against IFITM3, suggesting that viral receptors add an additional layer of complexity in the IFITMs-HIV interplay. Lastly, we show that the overall antiviral effects ascribed to IFITMs during spreading infections, are the result of a bimodal inhibition in which IFITMs act both by protecting target cells from incoming viruses and in driving the production of virions of reduced infectivity. Overall, our study reports for the first time that the negative imprinting of the virion particles infectivity is a conserved antiviral property of IFITMs and establishes IFITMs as a paradigm of restriction factor capable of interfering with two distinct phases of a virus life cycle.

Cell-Cell Sensing of Viral Infection by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells.

All cells possess signaling pathways designed to trigger antiviral responses, notably characterized by type I interferon (IFN) production, upon recognition of invading viruses. Especially, host sensors recognize viral nucleic acids. Nonetheless, virtually all viruses have evolved potent strategies that preclude host responses within the infected cells. The plasmacytoid dendritic cell (pDC) is an immune cell type known as a robust type I IFN producer in response to viral infection. Evidence suggests that such functionality of the pDCs participates in viral clearance. Nonetheless, their contribution, which is likely complex and varies depending on the pathogen, is still enigmatic for many viruses. pDCs are not permissive to most viral infections, and consistently, recent examples suggest that pDCs respond to immunostimulatory viral RNA transferred via noninfectious and/or noncanonical viral/cellular carriers. Therefore, the pDC response likely bypasses innate signaling blockages induced by virus within infected cells. Importantly, the requirement for cell-cell contact is increasingly recognized as a hallmark of the pDC-mediated antiviral state, triggered by evolutionarily divergent RNA viruses.

Regulation of the Host Antiviral State by Intercellular Communications.

Viruses usually induce a profound remodeling of host cells, including the usurpation of host machinery to support their replication and production of virions to invade new cells. Nonetheless, recognition of viruses by the host often triggers innate immune signaling, preventing viral spread and modulating the function of immune cells. It conventionally occurs through production of antiviral factors and cytokines by infected cells. Virtually all viruses have evolved mechanisms to blunt such responses. Importantly, it is becoming increasingly recognized that infected cells also transmit signals to regulate innate immunity in uninfected neighboring cells. These alternative pathways are notably mediated by vesicular secretion of various virus- and host-derived products (miRNAs, RNAs, and proteins) and non-infectious viral particles. In this review, we focus on these newly-described modes of cell-to-cell communications and their impact on neighboring cell functions. The reception of these signals can have anti- and pro-viral impacts, as well as more complex effects in the host such as oncogenesis and inflammation. Therefore, these "broadcasting" functions, which might be tuned by an arms race involving selective evolution driven by either the host or the virus, constitute novel and original regulations of viral infection, either highly localized or systemic.

Sensing of immature particles produced by dengue virus infected cells induces an antiviral response by plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

Dengue virus (DENV) is the leading cause of mosquito-borne viral illness and death in humans. Like many viruses, DENV has evolved potent mechanisms that abolish the antiviral response within infected cells. Nevertheless, several in vivo studies have demonstrated a key role of the innate immune response in controlling DENV infection and disease progression. Here, we report that sensing of DENV infected cells by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) triggers a robust TLR7-dependent production of IFNα, concomitant with additional antiviral responses, including inflammatory cytokine secretion and pDC maturation. We demonstrate that unlike the efficient cell-free transmission of viral infectivity, pDC activation depends on cell-to-cell contact, a feature observed for various cell types and primary cells infected by DENV, as well as West Nile virus, another member of the Flavivirus genus. We show that the sensing of DENV infected cells by pDCs requires viral envelope protein-dependent secretion and transmission of viral RNA. Consistently with the cell-to-cell sensing-dependent pDC activation, we found that DENV structural components are clustered at the interface between pDCs and infected cells. The actin cytoskeleton is pivotal for both this clustering at the contacts and pDC activation, suggesting that this structural network likely contributes to the transmission of viral components to the pDCs. Due to an evolutionarily conserved suboptimal cleavage of the precursor membrane protein (prM), DENV infected cells release uncleaved prM containing-immature particles, which are deficient for membrane fusion function. We demonstrate that cells releasing immature particles trigger pDC IFN response more potently than cells producing fusion-competent mature virus. Altogether, our results imply that immature particles, as a carrier to endolysosome-localized TLR7 sensor, may contribute to regulate the progression of dengue disease by eliciting a strong innate response.

A multi-colour/multi-affinity marker set to visualize phosphoinositide dynamics in Arabidopsis.

Phosphatidylinositolphosphates (PIPs) are phospholipids that contain a phosphorylated inositol head group. PIPs represent a minor fraction of total phospholipids, but are involved in many regulatory processes, such as cell signalling and intracellular trafficking. Membrane compartments are enriched or depleted in specific PIPs, providing a unique composition for these compartments and contributing to their identity. The precise subcellular localization and dynamics of most PIP species is not fully understood in plants. Here, we designed genetically encoded biosensors with distinct relative affinities and expressed them stably in Arabidopsis thaliana. Analysis of this multi-affinity 'PIPline' marker set revealed previously unrecognized localization of various PIPs in root epidermis. Notably, we found that PI(4,5)P2 is able to localize PIP2 -interacting protein domains to the plasma membrane in non-stressed root epidermal cells. Our analysis further revealed that there is a gradient of PI4P, with the highest concentration at the plasma membrane, intermediate concentration in post-Golgi/endosomal compartments, and the lowest concentration in the Golgi. Finally, we also found a similar gradient of PI3P from high in late endosomes to low in the tonoplast. Our library extends the range of available PIP biosensors, and will allow rapid progress in our understanding of PIP dynamics in plants.

[Human retrovirus XMRV: The end of an exciting story?] / Rétrovirus humain XMRV : la fin d'une histoire séduisante ?

Viruses represent an important cause of cancer in humans: infections are estimated to account for close to one cancer case out of five.With the ongoing discovery of new infectious agents, this number should be raising in the near future. In 2006, the discovery of a new _-retrovirus in prostate cancer biopsies launched an intense research activity: could this new xenotropic MLV-related virus (XMRV) be the cause of prostate cancer? Five years later, the initial enthusiasm of retrovirologists has dramatically diminished. One by one, arguments favouring the hypothesis of human infection with XMRV are being refuted. The aim of this review article is to present the discovery of XMRV and to analyze recent data arguing against its existence in humans. A synthetic interpretation of XMRV literature will then be suggested.