Elevation and latitude drives structure and tree species composition in Andean forests: Results from a large-scale plot network.

Our knowledge about the structure and function of Andean forests at regional scales remains limited. Current initiatives to study forests over continental or global scales still have important geographical gaps, particularly in regions such as the tropical and subtropical Andes. In this study, we assessed patterns of structure and tree species diversity along ~ 4000 km of latitude and ~ 4000 m of elevation range in Andean forests. We used the Andean Forest Network (Red de Bosques Andinos, https://redbosques.condesan.org/) database which, at present, includes 491 forest plots (totaling 156.3 ha, ranging from 0.01 to 6 ha) representing a total of 86,964 identified tree stems ≥ 10 cm diameter at breast height belonging to 2341 identified species, 584 genera and 133 botanical families. Tree stem density and basal area increases with elevation while species richness decreases. Stem density and species richness both decrease with latitude. Subtropical forests have distinct tree species composition compared to those in the tropical region. In addition, floristic similarity of subtropical plots is between 13 to 16% while similarity between tropical forest plots is between 3% to 9%. Overall, plots ~ 0.5-ha or larger may be preferred for describing patterns at regional scales in order to avoid plot size effects. We highlight the need to promote collaboration and capacity building among researchers in the Andean region (i.e., South-South cooperation) in order to generate and synthesize information at regional scale.

Leaf spectra and weight of species in canopy, subcanopy, and understory layers in a venezuelan andean cloud forest.

We characterize the leaf spectra of tree species of an Andean cloud forest in Venezuela, grouped according to position in canopy, subcanopy and understory. We measured leaf reflectance and transmittance spectra in the 400-750 nm range using a high-resolution spectrometer. Both signals were subtracted from unity to calculate the absorbance signal. Nine spectral variables were calculated for each signal, three based on wide-bands and six based on features. We measured leaf mass per unit area of all species, and calculated efficiency of absorbance, as ratio of absorbance in photosynthetic range over leaf mass. Differences among groups were significant for several absorbance and transmittance variables, leaf mass, and efficiency of absorbance. The clearest differences are between canopy and understory species. There is strong correlation for at least one pair of band variables for each signal, and each band variable is strongly correlated with at least one feature variable for most signals. High canonical correlations are obtained between pairs of the three canonical axes for bands and the first three canonical axes for features. Absorbance variables produce species clusters having the closest correspondence to the species groups. Linear discriminant analysis shows that species groups can be sorted by all signals, particularly absorbance.

Heterogeneidad estructural y lumínica del sotobosque de una selva nublada andina de Venezuela / Structural and light heterogeneity in the understory of a Venezuela andean cloud forest

Se caracterizó el sotobosque de una selva nublada andina en el Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada, Venezuela, describiendo la estructura del rodal y del dosel, y la composición espectral de la luz. Para el rodal se usaron las variables densidad de árboles y área basal (AB); para el dosel, índice de área foliar (IAF), porcentaje de área abierta (PAA) y área de hojas reflectoras hacia el sotobosque (AFR); y para el espectro, picos en el verde (PV) y rojo lejano (PR), cociente PR/PV e integral en la banda visible. La caracterízación horizontal se hizo cada 8m en una cuadrícula de 40m de lado, a 1m del suelo. Las mediciones espectrales se realizaron en condiciones de alta nubosidad, representativas de la selva nublada, y fueron examinadas también verticalmente hasta 6,6m de altura, en cuatro puntos de la cuadrícula. El rodal mostró agrupación de árboles, con número decreciente con el diámetro y pocos individuos grandes. La distribución horizontal de cada variable de rodal, dosel y espectro muestran baja correlación espacial indicando ausencia de patrones espaciales para la escala del estudio. El IAF resultó bajo y poco variable con máximo donde ocurren valores elevados de AB. Horizontalmente AFR se relaciona con PAA, especialmente para cuadrados con valores de PAA bajos. En muchos puntos del plano horizontal se observan espectros típicos de zonas sombreadas, con alto PR y atenuación en el resto del espectro. Para los puntos de dosel muy cerrado, existe relación entre las variables espectrales y del rodal, así como entre las espectrales y de dosel; en particular, PV/PR se pudo explicar mediante IAF. El gradiente vertical del espectro reveló una estructura vertical heterogénea del sotobosque, con un cambio importante a 45m que índica la ocurrencia de un estrato de dosel más denso hasta esa altura, probablemente generado por árboles pequeños.

Leaf production, reproductive patterns, field germination and seedling survival in Chamaedorea bartlingiana, a dioecious understory palm.

Chamaedorea bartlingiana is a dioecious palm that grows in the cloud forest understories of the Venezuelan Andes. Age and sexual differences in phenology and reproductive patterns were studied in labelled individuals of all age categories. This species has long-lived leaves and low leaf production, both characteristic of understory plants. Growth rates are lower in juveniles than in adults and in females than in males, as in other palms. Male and female individuals show different reproductive patterns. Male inflorescences are always produced at the same rate and the probability of surviving until anthesis is constant. Females produce reproductive buds at the same rate as males, but these buds have a 35% probability of becoming a ripe infrutescence if the plant has infrutescences already growing, and 70% if it does not. This pattern and the slow growth of inflorescences (1 year for males from bud to flowers, 2 years for females from bud to ripe fruits) cause a pluriannual reproductive pattern at the population level. Field germination does not follow this pattern, but shows one annual peak probably related to environmental conditions.