HIV surveillance by testing saliva from injecting drug users: a national study in New Zealand.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the prevalence of HIV infection among injecting drug users in New Zealand has remained low since the introduction of a needle and syringe exchange scheme in May 1988. DESIGN: Anonymous survey of intravenous drug users attending outlets of the exchange scheme, based on questionnaires and saliva testing. SETTING: Twelve pharmacies and community outreach organisation in six cities. SUBJECTS: Altogether 620 people provided saliva specimens and completed questionnaires. These represented 73% of those who visited exchange scheme outlets during a three month period in 1992. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Saliva was tested for antibodies to HIV-1 and HIV-2 using an IgG-capture enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (GACELISA). RESULTS: Of 591 specimens eligible for inclusion, only three (0.5%) were repeatedly reactive in the GACELISA test, while two of these were also positive in a Western blot test. CONCLUSIONS: Although surveys show that sharing of needles and syringes was common in New Zealand until recently, the prevalence of HIV infection in intravenous drug users has remained low. This can probably be attributed to the success of educational campaigns and legislative action to allow a needle and syringe exchange scheme to be set up.

Evidence of ortho- and paramyxoviruses in fauna from Antarctica.

Serum antibodies to influenza A viruses and paramyxoviruses were detected in Adelie penguin (Pysoscelis adeliae) and Antarctic skua (Stercorarius skua maccormicki) sera in the Ross Sea Dependency. An avian paramyxovirus was isolated from a penguin cloacal swab.

Molecular analysis of the haemagglutinin gene of an avian H1N1 influenza virus.

This study presents the first nucleotide sequence and deduced primary amino acid sequence of a subtype H1 haemagglutinin from the avian influenza virus A/duck/Alberta/35/76 (H1N1). The molecule is structurally, antigenically and molecularly similar to H1 haemagglutinins of human viruses but sequence homology differences indicate that there has not been a recent transfer of haemagglutinin genetic information between them.

Characterization of paramyxoviruses isolated from penguins in Antarctica and sub-Antarctica during 1976-1979.

Nine paramyxovirus isolates obtained from penguins were tested for antigenic relationships amongst themselves and to other avian paramyxoviruses. One of the isolates was shown to be a lentogenic Newcastle disease virus (NDV), i.e., of PMV-1 serotype. By serological tests and analysis of structural polypeptides the other penguin isolates could be placed into three groups. No relationship with other avian paramyxoviruses could be determined except that six of the penguin viruses, representing two of the groups, showed reaction with a monoclonal antibody raised against NDV Ulster 2C and three of the isolates, representing one of the penguin groups, also reacted with another PMV-1 directed monoclonal antibody.

Antigenic mapping of an avian H1 influenza virus haemagglutinin and interrelationships of H1 viruses from humans, pigs and birds.

Monoclonal antibodies to the haemagglutinin (HA) of the avian H1 influenza virus A/duck/Alberta/35/76 were used to construct an operational antigenic map of the HA molecule and to study the interrelationships of H1 viruses from different hosts. Haemagglutination inhibition tests between the monoclonal antibodies and variants selected by them provided evidence of four antigenic regions which overlap to varying degrees. Avian H1 influenza viruses displayed a spectrum of reactivities to the monoclonal antibody panel. Representatives of the epidemic strains of human H1 influenza viruses and early swine influenza viruses showed little or no reactivity with the monoclonal antibodies but swine influenza-like viruses isolated from pigs and humans in the last decade reacted with 11 of 17 antibodies. The antigenic similarity of these viruses to many avian isolates suggests that there has been a transfer of HA genetic information between mammalian and avian H1 influenza viruses.

A method for detecting human enteroviruses in aquatic sediments.

A method is described for detecting enteroviruses in both freshwater and marine sediments. Viruses were recovered from sediments by elution into 6% beef extract at pH 9.0 and concentration with polyethylene glycol 6000. The recovery efficiency ranged from 6 to 55% for marine sediments and 16 to 77% for freshwater sediments. Although the efficiency of the method was influenced by the composition and source of the sediments it was used successfully to detect viruses occurring in marine and freshwater sediments near sewer outfalls.

The isolation of influenza A viruses and paramyxoviruses from feral ducks in New Zealand.

Tracheal and cloacal swabs from apparently healthy ducks, gulls, shearwaters and terns in New Zealand were tested for myxoviruses by inoculation into embryonated eggs. Seven influenza A viruses belonging to three antigenic subtypes (H4N6; H1N3; H11N3) and nine paramyxoviruses of two antigenic subtypes (PMV-1; PMV-4) were isolated from feral ducks. The occurrence of the same virus subtypes in birds, including ducks, in other countries suggests that they were introduced into New Zealand by the importation of infected poultry or game birds. Ducks experimentally infected with two of the influenza A virus isolates excreted virus in their faeces for 12 days. Infection with H4N6 subtype prevented reinfection with the same subtype but not with a different one (H11N3).

Scrub typhus in the Eastern Solomon Islands and Northern Vanuatu (New Hebrides).

Rickettsia tsutsugmushi has been isolated from Rattus rattus from Vanua Lava island in Northern Vanuatu (New Hebrides) and from R. exulans and Leptotrombidium akamushi on Ndende island in the Eastern Solomon Islands. The well-known vector mite L. deliense was found on Mota Lava and Vanua Lava in Vanuatu, but no isolation was made from pools of this mite. Serology confirms that R. tsutsugamushi infects humans in the Banks group of islands in Northern Vanuatu and that infection is much more widespread in the Solomon Islands than the limited isolations indicate.

Hepatitis B antigen in a psychiatric hospital population.

Sera from 1283 patients and 73 staff members from Cherry Farm Psychiatric Hospital were screened for hepatitis B antigen over a five year period, following a single confirmed case of type B hepatitis in one villa. Apart from the presenting case, 10 asymptomatic carriers of hepatitis B antigen were detected, three of these being from the same villa and possessing the same antigen subtype as the presenting patient. Only two of 26 Down's syndrome patients and two of 44 Polynesian patients were positive. No staff members were positive. A case of frank hepatitis B occurred in a male nurse accidentally pricked with a needle contaminated with blood from one of the carriers. The low prevalence of hepatitis B antigen in this population for the mentally ill is possibly related to the reduced patient contact resulting from the isolated villa type of accommodation.

Influenza virus A (H1N1) in Fiji.

In April and May 1978 the newly emerged H1N1 subtype of influenza A virus caused an influenza epidemic among children and young adults in Fiji. The virus apparently failed to spread to New Zealand at that time despite the fact that each week more than 1000 people travel by air from Fiji to New Zealand.

Johnston Atoll virus (Quaranfil group) from Ornithodoros capensis (Ixodoidea: Argasidae) infesting a gannet colony in New Zealand.

Ten strains of Johnston Atoll (JA) virus were isolated from Ornithodoros capensis collected in a Gannet (Sula bassana serrator) colony in New Zealand. Its sensitivity to ether and sodium deoxycholate were confirmed and it was shown to have an RNA genome. It multiplied in day-old chicks but, unlike the prototype virus, it was not pathogenic for them. Transmission experiments and the high incidence of birds with neutralizing antibody indicate that the virus is maintained in the colony by a cycle involving ticks and Gannets. This is the first recorded tickborne arbovirus in New Zealand and extends the known range of JA virus from the tropics into the temperate zone.

Mosquito-borne infections in Fiji. V. The 1971-73 dengue epidemic.

A dengue epidemic due to type 2 virus involving some 3,400 cases began in Fiji early in 1971, had a peak during May, June and July, and cases have continued to occur with a low incidence during 1972 and 1973. Many of the notified cases showed classical dengue fever symptoms and there were no confirmed cases of haemorrhagic fever. A serological survey indicated that there had been at least 20,000 subclinical infections. It is probable that the virus was introduced to Fiji either through the port of Lautoka or Nadi international airport in February 1971. The normal travel patterns of residents must have spread the virus to all the more accessible localities but, with the exception of Rotuma, it caused infections only in areas where Aedes aegypti was available as a vector. There was no evidence that pre-existing dengue type 1 serum antibody gave any protection during this epidemic.

Induction of viral interference: effects of poly rI-rC and diethylaminoethyl-dextran on the activity of the antiviral protein.

The activity of the antiviral protein induced by various ratios of poly rI.rC and diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-dextran was studied. It was found that, when large doses of poly rI.rC were used, very little viral interference was observed. This effect was initially attributed to the cells being refractory for production of antiviral protein. Subsequent experiments offered alternative explanations suggesting that, at any given dosage of poly rI.rC, an excess of DEAE-dextran is necessary for the production of viral interference. It is suggested that DEAE-dextran acts by exposing a cell receptor site for poly rI.rC.