Validation of the Coping With Discrimination Scale among Arab/Middle Eastern North African Americans.

OBJECTIVES: Arab/Middle Eastern North African (MENA) Americans experience high levels of discrimination, which is associated with greater engagement in coping strategies to alleviate the stress. The Coping with Discrimination Scale (CDS; Wei, Alvarez, et al., 2010) remains one of the only measures that assesses responses to discrimination. Given the difficulties of conducting research with Arab/MENA groups, few measures have been validated for use with this population. Thus, the purpose of this study is to validate the CDS among Arab/MENA Americans. METHOD: The sample consisted of 297 Arab/MENA Americans (n = 139, Christian; n = 158, Muslim). Overall, 143 individuals identified as men and 154 identified as women. The sample's average age was 31.2 years old (SD = 9.5). Confirmatory factor analysis was utilized to assess the preassigned factor structure. RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the CDS five-factor structure among Arab/MENA participants. All models resulted in poor fit. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was then conducted to identify factors relevant to Christian and Muslim MENA Americans. EFA results were largely similar for both groups and two factors emerged: adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies. Preliminary reliability and incremental validity was explored. Specifically, adaptive (ß = -0.11, p = .009) and maladaptive coping (ß = 0.52, p < .001) predicted anxiety after accounting for participants' experiences of discrimination. CONCLUSION: This study has implications for utilization of the CDS, with the EFA suggesting a more fitting two-factor structure (maladaptive and adaptive coping) and sensitive interpretation of the scale with Arab/MENA populations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The influence of acculturation, enculturation, and religious orientation on Arab/Middle Eastern North African (MENA) Americans' help-seeking attitudes.

Help-seeking attitudes among Arab/Middle Eastern North African (MENA) Americans remain an understudied outcome, despite significant levels of reported mental health concerns. Hierarchical linear regression was used to examine whether Arab/MENA Christians and Muslims' help-seeking attitudes were significantly associated with acculturation, enculturation, and religious orientation. Results indicated that acculturation levels were positively associated with help-seeking attitudes, wherein individuals with higher levels of dominant society immersion were more likely to report more positive attitudes toward help seeking. Extrinsic social religious orientation (ESRO) interacted with religious affiliation (i.e., Christian or Muslim) wherein higher levels of ESRO were associated with lower help-seeking attitudes for Muslims but not Christians. Moreover, enculturation and religious affiliation interacted so that higher levels of enculturation were associated with less positive help-seeking attitudes for Christians and more positive help-seeking attitudes for Muslims. Finally, intrinsic religious orientation interacted with religious affiliation so that increasing levels of intrinsic religious orientation predicted lower levels of help-seeking attitudes for Muslims and higher levels for Christians. These findings have implications for working with Arab/MENA groups and implementing interventions to improve access and attitudes toward mental health services, which are often stigmatized (i.e., socially devalued) in this population. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Dismantling racism in the field of psychology and beyond: Introduction to the special issue.

In 2021, the American Psychological Association (APA) passed a series of resolutions that initiated a process of atonement for its participation in promoting, perpetuating, and failing to challenge racism and discrimination toward communities of color (APA, 2021a, 2021b). The purpose of this special issue was to examine the ways in which the field of psychology has perpetuated racial hierarchy and harm toward communities of color. More importantly, the included articles offer guidance on the mechanisms and strategies that will aid in the dismantling of racism in the field of psychology and support efforts of reconciliation, repair, and healing. In this introduction, we present a brief history of racism in the field of psychology and highlight theories and methods that should be considered as efforts to combat systemic racial inequities. Articles in this special issue fall into four specific themes that include bias and scientific racism in research, intergroup collaboration, organizational and clinical implications, and changing the culture of psychology. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Depression, gender, and help-seeking among Arab/Middle Eastern North African (MENA) Americans: The role of enculturation.

The purpose of this study was to examine the ways in which depression severity, gender, acculturation, and enculturation are associated with help-seeking attitudes among Arab/Middle Eastern North African (MENA) Americans. A hierarchical linear regression was conducted with a sample of 296 Arab/MENA participants (154 women and 142 men). After controlling for pertinent demographic variables, depression severity was negatively associated with help-seeking. Further, there was a significant three-way interaction between depression severity, gender, and enculturation on help-seeking attitudes. For women with higher levels of depression symptoms, higher levels of enculturation were associated with less positive help-seeking attitudes; conversely, higher levels of enculturation for men were associated with more positive help-seeking attitudes. These results have significant implications for clinicians working with Arab/MENA American populations. Practitioners should be aware of acculturation and enculturation processes as well as the ways in which depression symptom severity may influence engagement in treatment differentially for Arab/MENA women and men. Future research is needed to examine the mechanisms underlying these relationships. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Impostor Phenomenon in Racially/Ethnically Minoritized Groups: Current Knowledge and Future Directions.

In recent years there has been a surge of research conducted on the impostor phenomenon, with approximately half of all impostor phenomenon articles being published between 2020 and 2022 and growing interest in understanding how the impostor phenomenon affects racially and ethnically minoritized individuals. Questions around intersectionality remain about how to apply the impostor phenomenon to the experiences of minoritized individuals. In this review, we revisit the historical context of the impostor phenomenon. We address issues of nomenclature and current controversies regarding whether the impostor phenomenon (a) blames the victim, (b) should be included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), and (c) is beneficial for individuals. In addition, we address the limitations of current research on racially and ethnically minoritized individuals, especially women of color. Finally, we conclude by discussing the need for a reconceptualized racialized impostor phenomenon as well as the need to establish new impostor phenomenon measures, conduct more quantitative research with diverse samples, and create culturally tailored interventions.

Depression and anxiety symptoms among Arab/Middle Eastern American college students: Modifying roles of religiosity and discrimination.

INTRODUCTION: We examine mental health outcomes in a national sample of Arab/Middle Eastern college students using the Healthy Minds Study (HMS) from 2015-2018 and assess the modifying roles of religion and discrimination. METHODS: HMS is an annual web-based survey administered to random samples of undergraduate and graduate students at participating colleges and universities. A total of 2,494 Arab/Middle Eastern and 84,423 white students were included in our sample. Our primary outcomes of depression and anxiety symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionaire-9 (PHQ-9) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7) scale, respectively. Survey-weighted logistic regression models were fit for each outcome using an Arab ethnicity indicator. Effect modification by religiosity and discrimination was examined by adding an interaction term to the model. RESULTS: Odds of depression (adjusted odds ratio, AOR: 1.40, 95% CI: 1.24, 1.57) and anxiety (AOR: 1.41, 95% CI: 1.25, 1.60) were higher for Arab/Middle Eastern students than for white students. For Arab/Middle Eastern students, religiosity was a protective factor for both depression (AOR: 0.84, 95% CI: 0.79, 0.90) and anxiety (AOR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.85, 0.97). Arab/Middle Eastern students who experienced discrimination had higher odds of depression (AOR: 1.41, 95% CI: 1.28, 1.56) and anxiety (AOR: 1.49, 95% CI: 1.36, 1.65) than those who had not. DISCUSSION: Arab/Middle Eastern American college students are a vulnerable subgroup on college campuses experiencing a high burden of depression and anxiety symptoms which are dampened by religiosity and amplified by discrimination.

Psychological Predictors for Watching Television: The Role of Racial Representation.

This study explored psychological predictors that may impact viewers' decision to watch television shows on the basis of perceived racial or ethnic representation. 1998 undergraduate students selected from a list of motivations for watching television that included race-specific motivations such as "a character is of my race/ethnicity." Participants also completed attitudinal measures of colorblind racial ideology, social dominance orientation, ethnic identity, and ethnic stigma consciousness. Analysis revealed that prejudicial beliefs predicted less salience for racial representation when making choices about television watching, while deeper connection to one's ethnic group predicted greater salience for representation when making these choices.

The impact of racial identity and school composition on affirmative action attitudes of African American college students.

Affirmative Action remains a controversial policy that incites a variety of reactions. Some believe it's an unjust policy that discriminates against applicants, while others view it as a policy aimed at fighting against past inequalities and discrimination. Little is known about African American endorsement of the policy. Two hundred and seven Black students from a predominantly White institution (PWI) and a historically Black university (HBCU) participated in the current study to examine the impact of racial identity on affirmative action attitudes (AA). Results indicated that school type and race centrality significantly predicted AA attitudes. Students who attended a HBCU were less likely to endorse AA compared to students at the PWI and those higher in race centrality were more likely to endorse AA. This study is one of the first to investigate the impact of the educational environment on the affirmative action attitudes of African Americans.

Religious Identity, Discrimination, and Psychological Distress Among Muslim and Christian Arab Americans.

This study examines differences in experiences between Muslim and Christian Arabs (N = 1016) utilizing data from the Detroit Arab American Study (DAAS). Results showed that Muslim and Christian Arabs held similar levels of religious centrality and psychological distress but differed in reports of negative religious public regard and experiences of discrimination. Additionally, religious public regard and religious centrality predicted psychological distress similarly for Muslim and Christian Arab Americans. The relationship between religious centrality and psychological distress was mediated by negative religious public regard and perceived discrimination. Study implications are discussed.

Identity and Ethnic/Racial Self-Labeling among Americans of Arab or Middle Eastern and North African Descent.

The identity of Americans of Arab or Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) descent has been relatively understudied within the U.S. racial landscape. Given that the U.S. Census categorizes individuals of MENA descent into the "White" racial category, it is unclear the extent to which Arab/MENA Americans believe they are an ethnic minority in the United States. The current study surveyed 146 individuals of Middle Eastern and North African descent to answer two primary questions: 1) Would you call yourself an Arab or Arab American? 2) Do you consider yourself a minority in the U.S.? Findings indicated that 84% of the current survey participants consider themselves an ethnic minority and 51% are comfortable with the Arab American label. In addition, open ended responses were analyzed to determine the reasons participants answered yes or no to the aforementioned questions. Several themes emerged for each question based on endorsement including the accuracy of the Arab label, and Arab pride, among other themes. In addition, many felt that they were an ethnic minority in the U.S., specifically mentioning experiences with discrimination and lack of representation. Implications of study findings will be discussed.

A model of cumulative racial-ethnic trauma among Americans of Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) descent.

Americans of Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) descent in the United States have been historically understudied, in part due to limitations of racial classification systems that typically include MENA under the broad umbrella of White. As a result, enormous gaps in knowledge about health and mental health disparities exist, with broad public health significance. In particular, there is an urgent need to attend more specifically to MENA Americans' experiences of cumulative racial-ethnic trauma, which occurs at every level of their social ecologies. This article offers a conceptual model of cumulative racial-ethnic trauma to represent the unique experiences of the MENA American population. Traumatic factors at the macrolevel include historical trauma, pervasive institutional discrimination, and a hostile national context. These factors interact with one another and further impact microlevel traumatic experiences related to interpersonal discrimination and microaggressions, as well as struggles with identity and recognition. The deleterious impacts of these experiences may include a ubiquitous sense of insecurity, hopelessness, and alienation among MENA American individuals, in addition to more specific mental health and physical health concerns. It also compromises the overall well-being of the MENA American population in terms of belonging versus alienation, freedom versus restriction, and opportunities versus disadvantage. We discuss how the model can help to create a foundation for future inquiry and contribute to intervention efforts to find effective ways to support resilience and thriving for the MENA American population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Beauty and Body Image Concerns Among African American College Women.

The current study examined body image concerns among African American women. In recent years, there has been an attempt to include ethnic minority samples in body image studies (e.g., Grabe & Hyde, 2006; Hrabosky & Grilo, 2007; Lovejoy, 2001) but few specifically examine unique issues pertaining to beauty and body image for African American college age women. A total of 31 African American women participated in one of five focus groups on the campus of a large Southwestern University to examine beauty and body image. Data were analyzed using a thematic approach and several themes were identified. The majority of themes pertained to issues related to hair, skin tone, body type, and message sources. Themes included: sacrifice, ignorance/racial microaggressions, and validation and invalidation by others, thick/toned/curvy as optimal, hypersexualization, and being thin is for White women. Findings of the current study suggest a reconceptualization of body image for African American women where relevant characteristics such as hair and skin tone are given more priority over traditional body image concerns often associated with European American women.

Color-blind racial ideology: theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology.

Synthesizing the interdisciplinary literature, we characterize color-blind racial ideology (CBRI) as consisting of two interrelated domains: color-evasion (i.e., denial of racial differences by emphasizing sameness) and power-evasion (i.e., denial of racism by emphasizing equal opportunities). Mounting empirical data suggest that the color-evasion dimension is ineffective and in fact promotes interracial tension and potential inequality. CBRI may be conceived as an ultramodern or contemporary form of racism and a legitimizing ideology used to justify the racial status quo. Four types of CBRI are described: denial of (a) race, (b) blatant racial issues, (c) institutional racism, and (d) White privilege. We discuss empirical findings suggesting a relationship between CBRI and increased racial prejudice, racial anger, and racial fear. Implications for education, training, and research are provided.

Do measures commonly used in body image research perform adequately with African American college women?

This study examines reliability and validity estimates for 3 widely used measures in body image research in a sample of African American college women (N = 278). Internal consistency estimates were adequate (α coefficients above .70) for all measures, and evidence of convergent and discriminant validity was found. Confirmatory factor analyses failed to replicate the hypothesized factor structures of these measures. Exploratory factor analyses indicated that 4 factors found for the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire were similar to the hypothesized subscales, with fewer items. The factors found for the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales and the Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorders Inventory-3 were not similar to the subscales developed by the scale authors. Validity and reliability evidence is discussed for the new factors.

The impact of acculturation and religious identification on perceived discrimination for Arab/Middle Eastern Americans.

The aim of the current study was to determine the impact of acculturation, ethnic identity, and religious affiliation on perceived discrimination for persons of Arab and Middle Eastern descent. Two aspects of acculturation (ethnic society immersion and dominant society immersion), religious affiliation, and ethnic identity were measured using a final sample of 177 individuals of Arab or Middle Eastern descent. Results indicated that Arab/Middle Eastern Americans who reported lower levels of dominant society immersion tended to report higher levels of discrimination. Furthermore, Muslims reported a higher level of discrimination than Christians but this finding was moderated by level of acculturation. Specifically, Muslims who reported a high level of dominant society immersion experienced the most discrimination, whereas Christians who reported a high level of dominant society immersion reported less discrimination. Study implications are discussed.

Development of a measure of barriers to HIV testing among individuals at high risk.

Rates of HIV antibody testing remain at approximately 45% of the general population. To more effectively design interventions to increase testing, comprehensive information is needed to understand the barriers to HIV testing. A measure of barriers to HIV testing was developed using the major barriers identified in the literature on barriers to health care utilization (Melnyk, 1988), and tested with a diverse group of individuals at high risk for HIV, including heterosexuals, men who have sex with men, injected drug users, and sex workers. An exploratory factor analysis indicated that the factor structure was replicated over 2 years of data collection. Three factors--Structural Barriers, Fatalism/Confidentiality Concerns, and Fear--emerged for both years. The reliabilities ranged from .75 to .87, indicating moderate to high internal consistency.