Medical and Surgical Management of Conditions of the Penis and Prepuce.

The inability of a bull to reproduce due to its inability to impregnant fertile cows is called impotentia generandi. This infertility may be due to the inability to achieve erection, the inability to complete coitus, or the inability to produce an adequate volume of morphologically normal spermatozoa. Therapies targeting the urogenital tract of the bull can restore reproductive capabilities. Veterinarians can provide consultation regarding both management and selection criteria that will, in some cases, lower the overall risk of loss associated with the development of some conditions of the penis and prepuce.

Abnormalities of the Scrotum and Testes.

Abnormalities of the bovine scrotum and testes are an important cause of infertility. Proper evaluation of the male reproductive system is a critical first step in screening for such abnormalities. Excessive periscrotal fat, cutaneous scrotal defects, and unilateral scrotal swelling are common deformities that warrant further investigation. Early diagnosis and surgical intervention are often needed to restore reproductive soundness. This article reviews these conditions and provides therapeutic modalities.

Cryptorchidectomy with a paramedian or inguinal approach in domestic pigs: 47 cases (2000-2018).

OBJECTIVE: To describe cryptorchidectomy performed with a paramedian or inguinal approach in domestic pigs and compare findings for commercial-breed pigs with those for pot-bellied pigs. ANIMALS: 47 client-owned (33 commercial-breed and 14 pot-bellied) pigs. PROCEDURES: Medical records were searched to identify pigs that underwent surgical treatment for cryptorchidism from 2000 to 2018. Signalment, location of retained testes, surgeon, surgical approach, surgery time, anesthesia time, and postoperative complications were recorded. Complications were assessed with long-term follow-up. Age and surgical variables were compared between commercial-breed pigs and pot-bellied pigs. RESULTS: Retained testes were most commonly located in the abdomen (27/47 [57%] left-sided, 15/47 [32%] right-sided, and 2/47 [4%] bilateral); 2 pigs each had 1 retained testis in the inguinal region, and 1 pig had 1 retained testis in the abdomen and 1 in the inguinal region. Forty-four pigs with abdominally retained testes were treated successfully with a paramedian surgical approach, including 3 for which an inguinal approach was attempted first. An inguinal approach was successful for 3 pigs with inguinally retained testes and 1 with an abdominally retained testis. Standard castration techniques were used for normally descended and inguinally retained testes. Long-term follow-up was available for 34 pigs; minor complications were reported for 3 (9%). Pot-bellied pigs were significantly older than commercial-breed pigs. No other intergroup differences were found. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The paramedian surgical approach was successfully used for removal of abdominally retained testes in all pigs that underwent the procedure. The overall complication rate for cryptorchidectomy in the study sample was low.

Mastectomy in 25 small ruminants (2002-2019).

OBJECTIVE: To describe the outcome of small ruminants treated with unilateral and bilateral mastectomy by using three surgical techniques. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: Twenty-five small ruminants (24 goats and one sheep). METHODS: Medical records of animals that underwent mastectomy between November 1, 2002, and May 1, 2019, were reviewed. Follow-up information was obtained by telephone questionnaire with owners. Signalment, surgical data, intraoperative and postoperative complications, bacterial culture results, histopathologic diagnoses, short- and long-term outcomes, and other procedures performed were recorded. RESULT: Procedures consisted of six unilateral (with an elliptical incision) and 19 total (with inverted cloverleaf or elliptical skin incisions) mastectomies. All animals survived to hospital discharge. Intraoperative complications included contamination of the surgical site with mammary-gland fluid, hemorrhage, and difficulty dissecting skin from the mammary gland. Postoperative complications included seroma formation (7/25), surgical-site infection (5/25), and dehiscence of the skin incision (3/25). Mammary neoplasia was diagnosed in seven of 15 animals with histopathologic examination. No association was detected between surgical technique, diagnosis of neoplasia, and long-term outcome. Overall, client satisfaction was high. CONCLUSION: Mastectomy was effective at removing abnormally enlarged udders secondary to chronic mastitis, inappropriate lactation, idiopathic causes, or neoplasia and was associated with a low rate of complications in small ruminants. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Unilateral mastectomy with an elliptical skin incision or total mastectomy, preferably with inverted cloverleaf skin incision, may be indicated to remove diseased mammary tissue in small ruminants and can result in long-term survival with low morbidity and cosmetically pleasing results.

Caudal paramedian approach to cryptorchidectomy in 29 small ruminants (2011-2019).

OBJECTIVE: To describe a caudal paramedian approach to cryptorchidectomy in small ruminants. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: Sheep (n = 20) and goats (n = 9) with cryptorchidism. METHODS: Medical records from January 2011 to July 2019 of small ruminants that underwent caudal paramedian cryptorchidectomy at our institution were retrospectively reviewed. Data from animal signalment, operative and postoperative complications, and client satisfaction were evaluated. RESULTS: Twenty sheep and nine goats underwent caudal paramedian cryptorchidectomy during the study period. The median age of rams was 2 months, and the median age of bucks was 3 months; median weights for rams and bucks were 20.5 kg (range, 14.5-41.3) and 28.1 kg (range, 12.9-82), respectively. Cryptorchidism was bilateral in 27.6% (8/29) of cases and unilateral in 72.4% (21/29). Among unilateral cases, 85.7% (18/21) were right sided and 14.3% (3/21) were left sided. Twenty-four of 29 (82.8%) cases were performed under sedation. One operative complication occurred in a 4-year-old 82 kg buck (rate, 3.4% [95% CI: 0.1%-17.2%]). Postoperatively, there were two minor and one major complications (rates, 6.9% [95% CI: 0.8%-22.1%] and 3.4% [95% CI: 0.1%-17.2%], respectively). Long-term follow-up (range, 8-117 months) reports described owner satisfaction and all animals doing well at the time of follow-up telephone call. CONCLUSION: Caudal paramedian approach to cryptorchidectomy was safely performed in small ruminants less than 4 months old. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Ease of surgical technique, minimal operative and postoperative complications, and owner satisfaction make this a suitable method for cryptorchidectomy.

Disseminated Rhodococcus equi in an Anglo-Nubian goat.

Disseminated Rhodococcus equi infection was diagnosed in an Anglo-Nubian goat presenting for non-weight bearing lameness of the right pelvic limb. Radiographs showed a moth-eaten osteolytic lesion in the proximal tibia suggestive of an aggressive bone lesion. Two pulmonary nodules were also present on thoracic radiographs. Initial antemortem cytology of the tibial lesion was suggestive of Rhodococcosis and the goat was sent to necropsy. Necropsy and bacterial culture confirmed the diagnosis of disseminated R. equi infection in the right tibia, lungs, and liver.

Occlusion of the corpus cavernosum penis in bulls intended for estrus detection: 18 cases (2002-2016).

OBJECTIVE To report surgical and long-term postoperative outcomes of bulls undergoing surgical occlusion of the corpus cavernosum penis (CCP) by acrylic injection and epididymectomy with or without penile fixation as preparation for use in estrus detection. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 18 client-owned bulls. PROCEDURES Medical records of bulls that underwent CCP occlusion between December 2002 and March 2016 were identified. Signalment, surgical data, and reported complications were recorded. Long-term (> 6 months after surgery) follow-up data were obtained from medical records or by telephone interview of bull owners with a questionnaire focused on postoperative outcome, use of the bull for estrus detection, and overall satisfaction with the procedure. RESULTS Intraoperative complications included difficulty isolating the penis, polymerization of the acrylic prior to injection, incomplete anesthesia of the surgical site, and fecal contamination of the site. Deposition of acrylic in an improper location led to urethral obstruction and euthanasia of 1 bull; another developed an abscess that was treated successfully. One bull was euthanized because of orchitis. Most (15/18) bulls were used for estrus detection (mean duration, 17.9 months). Libido was considered good or very good for 14 of 15 bulls; 1 was culled for loss of libido after 14 months. Ten of 12 bulls were reportedly unable to protrude the penis; 2 had or developed partial protrusion ability. Overall client satisfaction was high. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE In this population of healthy young bulls, CCP occlusion was generally well tolerated. Most bulls that underwent CCP occlusion (and epididymectomy with or without penile fixation) had adequate libido, and none were reported able to achieve intromission.

Clinical signs and outcomes of beef cattle undergoing cesarean section because of dystocia.

OBJECTIVE To characterize signalment, clinical signs, reproductive history, surgical management, and outcomes of beef cattle undergoing cesarean section because of dystocia at a veterinary teaching hospital. DESIGN Retrospective case series with nested cohort study. ANIMALS 173 beef cattle admitted to a veterinary teaching hospital from 2001 through 2010 that underwent cesarean section because of dystocia. PROCEDURES Medical records were reviewed and information collected on cattle signalment; reproductive history; cause of dystocia; anesthetic protocol; surgical management; number, sex, and body weight of calves delivered (alive or dead); perioperative treatment; duration of hospitalization; and discharge status. A questionnaire regarding postoperative fertility was mailed to all owners, and owners who did not respond were contacted via telephone. RESULTS Overall mortality rate for calves was high, with 37.6% (62/165) of calves delivered dead or dying ≤ 24 hours after cesarean section. Mortality rate was higher for female versus male calves and for calves from dams with signs of labor for ≥ 3 hours versus < 3 hours before hospital admission. Overall mortality rate for dams was low, with only 10 of 161 (6.2%) dams failing to survive for ≥ 21 days after hospital discharge. Postoperative fertility rate was acceptable, with 75% (44/59) of dams that were rebred after cesarean section giving birth to ≥ 1 live calf. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Cesarean section was a clinically useful method for resolving dystocia in beef cattle, providing a high dam survival rate and an acceptable postoperative fertility rate. Beef cattle producers should seek veterinary assistance whenever clinical signs of dystocia are noticed, preferably within 6 hours after onset of parturition.

Optimized computed tomography protocol for assessment of dentition in alpacas.

OBJECTIVE To determine the optimal protocol for acquisition of CT images of the dentition in alpacas. ANIMALS 3 healthy adult male alpacas. PROCEDURES Each alpaca was anesthetized with an IM injection of a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and butorphanol and positioned in sternal recumbency on the CT couch with its legs folded in a natural cush position and its head positioned within the isocenter of the gantry of a 64-slice CT scanner. Images were acquired by means of 6 protocols (sequential and helical modes at slice thicknesses of 1.25, 2.5, and 5 mm). Five images (2 molar, 2 premolar, and mandibular incisor teeth) were selected from each protocol for evaluation by 3 veterinary radiologists. For each image, tooth root visibility and sharpness and image noise artifact were subjectively evaluated on a 3-point scoring system. RESULTS Slice thickness significantly affected tooth root visibility and tooth root sharpness but did not affect image noise artifact. Acquisition mode significantly affected tooth root visibility and tooth root sharpness as well as image noise artifact. Tooth root visibility and sharpness did not differ significantly between the helical and sequential images when the slice thickness was 1.25 mm. Image noise artifact was greater for helical images than sequential images but did not differ by slice thickness within either acquisition mode. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that for a 64-slice CT scanner, the optimal protocol for the acquisition of CT images of the dentition in alpacas was a sequential scan with a slice thickness of 1.25 mm.

Comparison of omentopexy versus pyloro-omentopexy for treatment of left abomasal displacement in dairy cows: 87 cases (2001-2005).

OBJECTIVE To evaluate reproductive performance and productive longevity of dairy cows treated for left displaced abomasum (LDA) with 1 of 2 surgical techniques (omentopexy vs pyloro-omentopexy). DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 87 Holstein cows that underwent omentopexy or pyloro-omentopexy for LDA during a 5-year period. PROCEDURES For each cow with LDA, the most recent date of calving, age at time of surgery, and surgical procedure were recorded. Dairy records of cows treated for LDA in the 5-year period were reviewed to determine their reproductive performance. Records available for up to 4 years after the last surgery (ie, when all treated cows had left the herd) were reviewed to determine cull dates and reasons for treated and untreated cows in the herd. RESULTS Of the 87 cows with LDA, 58 underwent pyloro-omentopexy and 29 underwent omentopexy. Cows in the 2 treatment groups did not significantly differ in age. Fifty-six cows completed > 1 subsequent lactation cycle after surgery. The median time that cows with LDA remained in the herd was 566 days (range, 24 to 1,838 days); the times for the 2 treatment groups did not significantly differ. For treated and untreated cows, cull rates for reproductive failure or other problems were similar. Four (14%) omentopexy-treated cows and no pyloro-omentopexy-treated cows had a reoccurrence of LDA. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that cows with LDA that underwent omentopexy or pyloro-omentopexy had similar cull rates and reasons as unaffected herd mates over their productive time in the herd. Between the 2 treatment groups, only the LDA reoccurrence rate differed.

Evaluation of three intravenous injectable anaesthesia protocols in healthy adult male alpacas.

Few studies have investigated the effects of intravenous injectable anaesthesia in alpacas. The objective of this study was to evaluate three intravenous injectable anaesthesia protocols in healthy adult alpacas exposed to noxious stimulation. A prospective randomised crossover study was done using six healthy adult male alpacas. Cardiopulmonary variables including heart rate, respiratory rate, mean arterial pressure, end-tidal pCO2 and haemoglobin oxygen saturation were collected immediately after and every two minutes following induction of each of three anaesthesia protocols in six male castrated alpacas. A hoof tester was used to apply consistent pressure every two minutes after induction and the response was recorded. Time from induction to muscle contraction and leg withdrawal were recorded, as well as time from induction to extubation, sternal recumbency and standing. There was no significant difference in duration of anaesthesia or cardiopulmonary variables among the three anaesthesia protocols. Total duration of anaesthesia was approximately 20 minutes for each protocol. Hypoxaemia and mild hypercarbia were common among all protocols. Induction and recovery scores were excellent.

Surgery of the Umbilicus and Related Structures.

Ruminants of all types requiring umbilical surgery can be affected by a number of different conditions. However, the practitioner should be able to correct any of these conditions surgically, especially in young animals, as a field procedure if appropriate restraint and environment are available. Like other aspects of veterinary practice, the individual must decide what services he or she wishes to offer clients in their practice and which ones will be referred. The objective of this article is to equip veterinarians who wish to treat umbilical masses surgically with the information they need.

Microscopy and genomic analysis of Mycoplasma parvum strain Indiana.

Mycoplasma parvum [Eperythrozoon parvum] is the second hemotrophic mycoplasma (hemoplasma) described in pigs. Unlike M. suis, its closest phylogenetic relative, M. parvum, is considered a non-pathogenic bacterium in this host species. Natural infection of a domestic, 6-month-old splenectomized pig with M. parvum strain Indiana is described herein. Light and scanning electron microscopy of the bacteria were performed in addition to whole genome sequencing, analysis, and comparison to the genome of M. suis strain Illinois. Neither clinical signs nor anemia were observed during the infection. Microscopy analyses revealed coccoid to rod- shaped organisms varying from 0.2 to 0.5 µm; they were observed individually or in short chains by both light and electron microscopy, however less than 30% of the red blood cells were infected at peak bacteremia. The single circular chromosome of M. parvum was only 564 395 bp, smaller than M. genitalium, previously considered the tiniest member of the Mollicutes. Its general genomic features were similar to others in this class and species circumscription was verified by phylogenomic analysis. A gene-by-gene comparison between M. suis and M. parvum revealed all protein coding sequences (CDS) with assigned functions were shared, including metabolic functions, transporters and putative virulence factors. However, the number of CDS in paralogous gene families was remarkably different with about half as many paralogs in M. parvum. The differences in paralogous genes may be implicated in the different pathogenic potential of these two species, however variable gene expression may also play a role. Both are areas of ongoing investigation.

Evidence-based use of prokinetic drugs for abomasal disorders in cattle.

Abomasal hypomotility is a prerequisite for abomasal displacement in cattle and is present immediately after surgical correction of left displaced abomasum or abomasal volvulus. Hypocalcemia, hypokalemia, and hyperinsulinemia should be corrected in cattle suspected to have abomasal hypomotility. The most effective prokinetic for calves and adult cattle suspected to have abomasal hypomotility is erythromycin.

Umbilical surgery in calves.

Calves benefiting from umbilical surgery can be affected by several different conditions. However, the practitioner should be able to correct any of these conditions surgically, especially in young calves, as a field procedure. Like other aspects of veterinary practice, the individual must decide what services he/she wishes to offer clients in the field or clinic setting and which ones will be referred. The objective of this article is to equip practitioners who wish to treat umbilical masses surgically with the information they need.