De novo variants in the RNU4-2 snRNA cause a frequent neurodevelopmental syndrome.

Around 60% of individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) remain undiagnosed after comprehensive genetic testing, primarily of protein-coding genes1. Large genome-sequenced cohorts are improving our ability to discover new diagnoses in the non-coding genome. Here, we identify the non-coding RNA RNU4-2 as a syndromic NDD gene. RNU4-2 encodes the U4 small nuclear RNA (snRNA), which is a critical component of the U4/U6.U5 tri-snRNP complex of the major spliceosome2. We identify an 18 bp region of RNU4-2 mapping to two structural elements in the U4/U6 snRNA duplex (the T-loop and Stem III) that is severely depleted of variation in the general population, but in which we identify heterozygous variants in 115 individuals with NDD. Most individuals (77.4%) have the same highly recurrent single base insertion (n.64_65insT). In 54 individuals where it could be determined, the de novo variants were all on the maternal allele. We demonstrate that RNU4-2 is highly expressed in the developing human brain, in contrast to RNU4-1 and other U4 homologs. Using RNA-sequencing, we show how 5' splice site usage is systematically disrupted in individuals with RNU4-2 variants, consistent with the known role of this region during spliceosome activation. Finally, we estimate that variants in this 18 bp region explain 0.4% of individuals with NDD. This work underscores the importance of non-coding genes in rare disorders and will provide a diagnosis to thousands of individuals with NDD worldwide.

De novo variants in the non-coding spliceosomal snRNA gene RNU4-2 are a frequent cause of syndromic neurodevelopmental disorders.

Around 60% of individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) remain undiagnosed after comprehensive genetic testing, primarily of protein-coding genes1. Increasingly, large genome-sequenced cohorts are improving our ability to discover new diagnoses in the non-coding genome. Here, we identify the non-coding RNA RNU4-2 as a novel syndromic NDD gene. RNU4-2 encodes the U4 small nuclear RNA (snRNA), which is a critical component of the U4/U6.U5 tri-snRNP complex of the major spliceosome2. We identify an 18 bp region of RNU4-2 mapping to two structural elements in the U4/U6 snRNA duplex (the T-loop and Stem III) that is severely depleted of variation in the general population, but in which we identify heterozygous variants in 119 individuals with NDD. The vast majority of individuals (77.3%) have the same highly recurrent single base-pair insertion (n.64_65insT). We estimate that variants in this region explain 0.41% of individuals with NDD. We demonstrate that RNU4-2 is highly expressed in the developing human brain, in contrast to its contiguous counterpart RNU4-1 and other U4 homologs, supporting RNU4-2's role as the primary U4 transcript in the brain. Overall, this work underscores the importance of non-coding genes in rare disorders. It will provide a diagnosis to thousands of individuals with NDD worldwide and pave the way for the development of effective treatments for these individuals.

Delineating the Clinical Spectrum Associated With Xq25q26.2 Duplications: Report of 2 Families and Review of the Literature.

To date, 13 patients with interstitial microduplications involving Xq25q26.2 have been reported. Here, we report 6 additional patients from 2 families with duplications involving Xq25q26.2. Family I carries a 5.3-Mb duplication involving 26 genes. This duplication was identified in 3 patients and was associated with microcephaly, growth failure, developmental delay, and dysmorphic features. Family II carries an overlapping 791-kb duplication that involves 3 genes. This duplication was identified in 3 patients and was associated with learning disability and speech delay. The size and gene content of published overlapping Xq25q26.2 duplications vary, making it difficult to define a critical region or establish a genotype-phenotype correlation. However, patients with overlapping duplications have been found to share common clinical features including microcephaly, growth failure, intellectual disability, learning difficulties, and dysmorphic features. The 2 families presented here provide additional insight into the phenotypic spectrum and clinical significance of duplications in this region.

Impact of genetic counseling and Connexin-26 and Connexin-30 testing on deaf identity and comprehension of genetic test results in a sample of deaf adults: a prospective, longitudinal study.

Using a prospective, longitudinal study design, this paper addresses the impact of genetic counseling and testing for deafness on deaf adults and the Deaf community. This study specifically evaluated the effect of genetic counseling and Connexin-26 and Connexin-30 genetic test results on participants' deaf identity and understanding of their genetic test results. Connexin-26 and Connexin-30 genetic testing was offered to participants in the context of linguistically and culturally appropriate genetic counseling. Questionnaire data collected from 209 deaf adults at four time points (baseline, immediately following pre-test genetic counseling, 1-month following genetic test result disclosure, and 6-months after result disclosure) were analyzed. Four deaf identity orientations (hearing, marginal, immersion, bicultural) were evaluated using subscales of the Deaf Identity Development Scale-Revised. We found evidence that participants understood their specific genetic test results following genetic counseling, but found no evidence of change in deaf identity based on genetic counseling or their genetic test results. This study demonstrated that culturally and linguistically appropriate genetic counseling can improve deaf clients' understanding of genetic test results, and the formation of deaf identity was not directly related to genetic counseling or Connexin-26 and Connexin-30 genetic test results.

Clinical utility of chromosomal microarray analysis of DNA from buccal cells: detection of mosaicism in three patients.

Mosaic chromosomal abnormalities are relatively common. However, mosaicism may be missed due to multiple factors including failure to recognize clinical indications and order appropriate testing, technical limitations of diagnostic assays, or sampling tissue (s) in which mosaicism is either not present, or present at very low levels. Blood leukocytes have long been the "gold standard" sample for cytogenetic analysis; however, the culturing process for routine chromosome analysis can complicate detection of mosaicism since the normal cell line may have a growth advantage in culture, or may not be present in the cells that produce metaphases (the lymphocytes). Buccal cells are becoming increasingly utilized for clinical analyses and are proving to have many advantages. Buccal swabs allow for simple and noninvasive DNA collection. When coupled with a chromosomal microarray that contains single nucleotide polymorphic probes, analysis of buccal cells can maximize a clinician's opportunity to detect cytogenetic mosaicism. We present three cases of improved diagnosis of mosaic aberrations using buccal specimens for chromosomal microarray analysis. In each case, the aberration was either undetectable in blood or present at such a low level it likely could have gone undetected. These cases highlight the limitations of certain laboratory methodologies for identifying mosaicism. We also present practice implications for genetic counselors, including clinic workflow changes and counseling approaches based on increasing use of buccal samples.

Xq28 duplication overlapping the int22h-1/int22h-2 region and including RAB39B and CLIC2 in a family with intellectual and developmental disability.

Duplications involving terminal Xq28 are a known cause of intellectual disability (ID) in males and in females with unfavorable X-inactivation patterns. Within Xq28, functional disomy of MECP2 causes a severe ID syndrome, however the dosage sensitivity of other Xq28 duplicated genes is less certain. Duplications involving the int22h-1/int22h-2 LCR-flanked region in distal Xq28 have recently been linked to a novel ID-associated phenotype. While evidence for the dosage sensitivity of this region is emerging, the phenotypic contribution of individual genes within the int22h-1/int22h-2-flanked region has yet to be determined. We report a familial case of a novel 774 kb Xq28-qter duplication, detected by cytogenomic microarray analysis, that partially overlaps the int22h-1/int22h-2-flanked region. This duplication and a 570 kb Xpter-p22.33 loss within the pseudoautosomal region were identified in three siblings, one female and two males, who presented with developmental delays/intellectual disability, mild dysmorphic features and short stature. Although unconfirmed, these results are suggestive of maternal inheritance of a recombinant X. We compare our clinical findings to patients with int22h-1/int22h-2-mediated duplications and discuss the potential pathogenicity of genes within the duplicated region, including those within the shared region of overlap, RAB39B and CLIC2.

L1CAM whole gene deletion in a child with L1 syndrome.

L1 syndrome is a group of overlapping, X-linked disorders caused by mutations in L1CAM. Clinical phenotypes within L1 syndrome include X-linked hydrocephalus with stenosis of the aqueduct of sylvius (HSAS); mental retardation, adducted thumbs, shuffling gait, and aphasia (MASA) syndrome; spastic paraplegia type 1; and agenesis of the corpus callosum. Over 200 mutations in L1CAM have been reported; however, only a few large gene deletions have been observed. We report on a 4-month-old male with a de novo whole gene deletion of L1CAM presenting with congenital hydrocephalus, aqueductal stenosis, and adducted thumbs. Initial failure of L1CAM gene sequencing suggested the possibility of a whole gene deletion of L1CAM. Further investigation through chromosome microarray analysis showed a 62Kb deletion encompassing the first exon of the PDZD4 gene and the entire L1CAM gene. Investigations into genotype-phenotype correlations have suggested that mutations leading to truncated or absent L1 protein cause more severe forms of L1 syndrome. Based on the presentation of the proband and other reported patients with whole gene deletions, we provide further evidence that L1CAM whole gene deletions result in L1 syndrome with a severe phenotype, deletions of PDZD4 do not cause additional manifestations, and that X-linked nephrogenic diabetes insipidus reported in a subset of patients with large L1CAM deletions results from the loss of AVPR2.

Genetic counselor review of genetic test orders in a reference laboratory reduces unnecessary testing.

Genetic tests are routinely ordered by health care providers (HCPs) within a wide range of medical specialties. Many providers have limited knowledge or experience with ordering and interpreting genetic tests; thus, test order errors are common. Rigorous review of genetic test orders by genetic counselors (GCs) can provide a direct financial benefit to medical institutions, patients and insurers. GCs at ARUP (Associated Regional University Pathologists) Laboratories routinely perform a preanalytic assessment of complex molecular genetic test orders that includes reviewing clinical and family history information and considering the clinical utility and cost-effectiveness of ordered tests. GCs contact the ordering institution and/or HCP as needed to collect additional clinical information and confirm the test order or suggest alternative testing based on the provided information. A retrospective review of the GC-facilitated test changes over a 21-month period at ARUP laboratories was performed. Approximately 26% of all requests for complex genetic tests assessing germ line mutations were changed following GC review. Testing fees associated with canceled tests were summed to estimate the cost-savings resulting from GC-facilitated test reviews. The test review process resulted in an average reduction in charges to the referring institutions of $48,000.00 per month. GC review of genetic test orders for appropriateness and clinical utility reduces healthcare costs to hospitals, insurers, and patients.

Deaf genetic testing and psychological well-being in deaf adults.

Limited data suggest that enhanced self-knowledge from genetic information related to non-medical traits can have a positive impact on psychological well-being. Deaf individuals undertake genetic testing for deaf genes to increase self-knowledge. Because deafness is considered a non-medical trait by many individuals, we hypothesized that deaf individuals receiving a genetic explanation for why they are deaf will experience increased psychological well-being. We report results from a prospective, longitudinal study to determine the impact of genetic testing (GJB2, Cx26; GJB6, Cx30) on perceived personal control (PPC), anxiety, and depression in deaf adults (N = 209) assessed following pre-test genetic counseling as well as 1-month and 6-months following test result disclosure. Participants were classified as Cx positive (n = 82) or Cx negative/inconclusive (n = 127). There was significant evidence for Cx group differences in PPC and anxiety over time (PPC: Cx group*time interaction p = 0.0007; anxiety: Cx group*time interaction p = 0.002), where PPC scores were significantly higher, and anxiety scores were significantly lower for the Cx positive group relative to the negative/inconclusive group following test result disclosure. Compared to pre-test, PPC scores increased at 1-month (p = 0.07) and anxiety scores decreased at 6-months (p = 0.03) for the Cx positive group. In contrast, PPC scores decreased (p = 0.009, p < 0.0001) and anxiety scores increased (p = 0.09, p = 0.02) for the Cx negative/inconclusive group at 1- and 6-months post test result disclosure. Genetic testing for deaf genes affects the psychological well-being of deaf individuals. Increasing deaf adults' access to genetic testing may potentially enhance self-knowledge and increase psychological well-being for those who receive a genetic explanation, which could offer downstream health benefits.

Effect of pre-test genetic counseling for deaf adults on knowledge of genetic testing.

Empirical data on genetic counseling outcomes in the deaf population are needed to better serve this population. This study was an examination of genetics knowledge before and after culturally and linguistically appropriate pre-test genetic counseling in a diverse deaf adult sample. Individuals ≥18 years old with early-onset sensorineural deafness were offered connexin-26/30 testing and genetic counseling. Participants completed questionnaires containing 10 genetics knowledge items at baseline and following pre-test genetic counseling. The effects of genetic counseling, prior beliefs about etiology, and participant's preferred language on genetics knowledge scores were assessed (n = 244). Pre-test genetic counseling (p = .0007), language (p < .0001), prior beliefs (p < .0001), and the interaction between counseling and beliefs (p = .035) were predictors of genetics knowledge. American Sign Language (ASL)-users and participants with "non-genetic/unknown" prior beliefs had lower knowledge scores than English-users and participants with "genetic" prior beliefs, respectively. Genetics knowledge improved after genetic counseling regardless of participants' language; knowledge change was greater for the "non-genetic/unknown" beliefs group than the "genetic" beliefs group. ASL-users' lower knowledge scores are consistent with evidence that ethnic and cultural minority groups have less genetics knowledge, perhaps from exposure and access disparities. Culturally and linguistically appropriate pre-test genetic counseling significantly improved deaf individuals' genetics knowledge. Assessing deaf individuals' prior beliefs is important for enhancing genetics knowledge.

B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia and cystinuria in a patient with duplication 22q11.21 detected by chromosomal microarray analysis.

Duplication 22q11.2 syndrome is the result of a microduplication of the same chromosomal region that is deleted in DiGeorge and Velocardiofacial syndromes. We describe a patient with dysmorphic features who was diagnosed with pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and developed cystinuria and pancreatitis during treatment. Duplication 22q11.2 has not been previously described in association with hematologic abnormalities. Chromosomal microarray technology was used to diagnose duplication 22q11.2 syndrome. In this era of advanced genomics, this technology has become an important method for helping to determine the molecular basis of diseases, best treatments and ultimately patient outcomes.

Transient leukoencephalopathy associated with X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.

X-linked hereditary demyelinating neuropathy (Charcot-Marie-Tooth 1X) accounts for 10% to 20% of all hereditary demyelinating neuropathies and is caused by mutations in the GJB1 gene, which codes for connexin 32. Connexin 32 is a gap junction protein widely expressed in Schwann cells as well as oligodendrocytes. Transient leukoencephalopathy has been reported in children and adults with Charcot-Marie-Tooth 1X. The case of a previously healthy 10-year-old boy who presented with fluctuating neurological deficits is reviewed. His brain magnetic resonance imaging scans showed abnormal restricted diffusion and mild hyperintense T2-weighted and fluid attenuation inversion recovery abnormalities in the splenium of the corpus callosum and the posterior cerebral white matter in a bilaterally symmetric distribution. A family history of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease was revealed late in his presentation, and genetic testing identified a mutation in the GJB1 gene that has not previously been associated with central nervous system involvement.

Deaf adults' reasons for genetic testing depend on cultural affiliation: results from a prospective, longitudinal genetic counseling and testing study.

This article examines the relationship between cultural affiliation and deaf adults' motivations for genetic testing for deafness in the first prospective, longitudinal study to examine the impact of genetic counseling and genetic testing on deaf adults and the deaf community. Participants (n = 256), classified as affiliating with hearing, Deaf, or both communities, rated interest in testing for 21 reasons covering 5 life domains. Findings suggest strong interest in testing to learn why they are deaf, but little interest in using it for decisions about a partner or having children. Culturally mediated variation was also demonstrated. Deaf and both communities groups viewed testing as useful for more life domains than the hearing community group. Deaf and both communities had similar motivations related to further exploration, understanding, or strengthening of deafness. Motivations related to "hearing" were also relevant for both communities. We conclude that cultural affiliation is an important factor for constructing motivations for genetic testing.

Mutations in the MPV17 gene are responsible for rapidly progressive liver failure in infancy.

UNLABELLED: MPV17 is a mitochondrial inner membrane protein of unknown function recently recognized as responsible for a mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome. The aim of this study is to delineate the specific clinical, pathological, biochemical, and molecular features associated with mitochondrial DNA depletion due to MPV17 gene mutations. We report 4 cases from 3 ethnically diverse families with MPV17 mutations. Importantly, 2 of these cases presented with isolated liver failure during infancy without notable neurologic dysfunction. CONCLUSION: We therefore propose that mutations in the MPV17 gene be considered in the course of evaluating the molecular etiology for isolated, rapidly progressive infantile hepatic failure.

Combined cyclic vomiting and Kearns-Sayre syndromes.

The third case of cyclic vomiting syndrome with a large mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid rearrangement is described. Multiple neuromuscular anomalies are present that meet the diagnostic criteria for Kearns-Sayre syndrome, as well as severe symmetrical growth retardation. A 3-kilobase mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid deletion (nucleotides 10970-14118) was found at 30-40% heteroplasmy in the blood of the child, but not the mother. Although mitochondrial dysfunction and disease-associated mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid sequence variants are believed to be present in most cyclic vomiting syndrome cases, these variants are rarely identifiable on "standard" mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid testing. However, finding a rearrangement has clinical implications, and standard testing is recommended in those cyclic vomiting syndrome cases with neuromuscular disease and/or growth retardation, whether maternal inheritance is present or not.