Ancient genomes reveal over two thousand years of dingo population structure.

Dingoes are culturally and ecologically important free-living canids whose ancestors arrived in Australia over 3,000 B.P., likely transported by seafaring people. However, the early history of dingoes in Australia-including the number of founding populations and their routes of introduction-remains uncertain. This uncertainty arises partly from the complex and poorly understood relationship between modern dingoes and New Guinea singing dogs, and suspicions that post-Colonial hybridization has introduced recent domestic dog ancestry into the genomes of many wild dingo populations. In this study, we analyzed genome-wide data from nine ancient dingo specimens ranging in age from 400 to 2,746 y old, predating the introduction of domestic dogs to Australia by European colonists. We uncovered evidence that the continent-wide population structure observed in modern dingo populations had already emerged several thousand years ago. We also detected excess allele sharing between New Guinea singing dogs and ancient dingoes from coastal New South Wales (NSW) compared to ancient dingoes from southern Australia, irrespective of any post-Colonial hybrid ancestry in the genomes of modern individuals. Our results are consistent with several demographic scenarios, including a scenario where the ancestry of dingoes from the east coast of Australia results from at least two waves of migration from source populations with varying affinities to New Guinea singing dogs. We also contribute to the growing body of evidence that modern dingoes derive little genomic ancestry from post-Colonial hybridization with other domestic dog lineages, instead descending primarily from ancient canids introduced to Sahul thousands of years ago.

The Australasian dingo archetype: de novo chromosome-length genome assembly, DNA methylome, and cranial morphology.

BACKGROUND: One difficulty in testing the hypothesis that the Australasian dingo is a functional intermediate between wild wolves and domesticated breed dogs is that there is no reference specimen. Here we link a high-quality de novo long-read chromosomal assembly with epigenetic footprints and morphology to describe the Alpine dingo female named Cooinda. It was critical to establish an Alpine dingo reference because this ecotype occurs throughout coastal eastern Australia where the first drawings and descriptions were completed. FINDINGS: We generated a high-quality chromosome-level reference genome assembly (Canfam_ADS) using a combination of Pacific Bioscience, Oxford Nanopore, 10X Genomics, Bionano, and Hi-C technologies. Compared to the previously published Desert dingo assembly, there are large structural rearrangements on chromosomes 11, 16, 25, and 26. Phylogenetic analyses of chromosomal data from Cooinda the Alpine dingo and 9 previously published de novo canine assemblies show dingoes are monophyletic and basal to domestic dogs. Network analyses show that the mitochondrial DNA genome clusters within the southeastern lineage, as expected for an Alpine dingo. Comparison of regulatory regions identified 2 differentially methylated regions within glucagon receptor GCGR and histone deacetylase HDAC4 genes that are unmethylated in the Alpine dingo genome but hypermethylated in the Desert dingo. Morphologic data, comprising geometric morphometric assessment of cranial morphology, place dingo Cooinda within population-level variation for Alpine dingoes. Magnetic resonance imaging of brain tissue shows she had a larger cranial capacity than a similar-sized domestic dog. CONCLUSIONS: These combined data support the hypothesis that the dingo Cooinda fits the spectrum of genetic and morphologic characteristics typical of the Alpine ecotype. We propose that she be considered the archetype specimen for future research investigating the evolutionary history, morphology, physiology, and ecology of dingoes. The female has been taxidermically prepared and is now at the Australian Museum, Sydney.

The Australasian dingo archetype: De novo chromosome-length genome assembly, DNA methylome, and cranial morphology.

Background: One difficulty in testing the hypothesis that the Australasian dingo is a functional intermediate between wild wolves and domesticated breed dogs is that there is no reference specimen. Here we link a high-quality de novo long read chromosomal assembly with epigenetic footprints and morphology to describe the Alpine dingo female named Cooinda. It was critical to establish an Alpine dingo reference because this ecotype occurs throughout coastal eastern Australia where the first drawings and descriptions were completed. Findings: We generated a high-quality chromosome-level reference genome assembly (Canfam_ADS) using a combination of Pacific Bioscience, Oxford Nanopore, 10X Genomics, Bionano, and Hi-C technologies. Compared to the previously published Desert dingo assembly, there are large structural rearrangements on Chromosomes 11, 16, 25 and 26. Phylogenetic analyses of chromosomal data from Cooinda the Alpine dingo and nine previously published de novo canine assemblies show dingoes are monophyletic and basal to domestic dogs. Network analyses show that the mtDNA genome clusters within the southeastern lineage, as expected for an Alpine dingo. Comparison of regulatory regions identified two differentially methylated regions within glucagon receptor GCGR and histone deacetylase HDAC4 genes that are unmethylated in the Alpine dingo genome but hypermethylated in the Desert dingo. Morphological data, comprising geometric morphometric assessment of cranial morphology place dingo Cooinda within population-level variation for Alpine dingoes. Magnetic resonance imaging of brain tissue show she had a larger cranial capacity than a similar-sized domestic dog. Conclusions: These combined data support the hypothesis that the dingo Cooinda fits the spectrum of genetic and morphological characteristics typical of the Alpine ecotype. We propose that she be considered the archetype specimen for future research investigating the evolutionary history, morphology, physiology, and ecology of dingoes. The female has been taxidermically prepared and is now at the Australian Museum, Sydney.

Eye contact and sociability data suggests that Australian dingoes were never domesticated.

Dogs were the first animal to become domesticated by humans, and they represent a classic model system for unraveling the processes of domestication. We compare Australian dingo eye contact and socialization with Basenji and German Shepherd dog (GSD) breeds. Australian dingoes arrived in Australia 5,000-8,000 BP, and there is debate whether they were domesticated before their arrival. The Basenji represents a primitive breed that diverged from the remaining breeds early in the domestication process, while GSDs are a breed dog selected from existing domestic dogs in the late 1800s. We conducted a 4-phase study with unfamiliar and familiar investigators either sitting passively or actively calling each canid. We found 75% of dingoes made eye contact in each phase. In contrast, 86% of Basenjis and 96% of GSDs made eye contact. Dingoes also exhibited shorter eye-gaze duration than breed dogs and did not respond to their name being called actively. Sociability, quantified as a canid coming within 1 m of the experimenter, was lowest for dingoes and highest for GSDs. For sociability duration, dingoes spent less time within 1 m of the experimenter than either breed dog. When compared with previous studies, these data show that the dingo is behaviorally intermediate between wild wolves and Basenji dogs and suggest that it was not domesticated before it arrived in Australia. However, it remains possible that the accumulation of mutations since colonization has obscured historical behaviors, and dingoes now exist in a feralized retamed cycle. Additional morphological and genetic data are required to resolve this conundrum.

Ancestral dietary change alters the development of Drosophila larvae through MAPK signalling.

Studies in a broad range of animal species have revealed phenotypes that are caused by ancestral life experiences, including stress and diet. Ancestral dietary macronutrient composition and quantity (over- and under-nutrition) have been shown to alter descendent growth, metabolism and behaviour. Molecules have been identified in gametes that are changed by ancestral diet and are required for transgenerational effects. However, there is less understanding of the developmental pathways altered by inherited molecules during the period between fertilization and adulthood. To investigate this non-genetic inheritance, we exposed great grand-parental and grand-parental generations to defined protein to carbohydrate (P:C) dietary ratios. Descendent developmental timing was consistently faster in the period between the embryonic and pupal stages when ancestors had a higher P:C ratio diet. Transcriptional analysis revealed extensive and long-lasting changes to the MAPK signalling pathway, which controls growth rate through the regulation of ribosomal RNA transcription. Pharmacological inhibition of both MAPK and rRNA pathways recapitulated the ancestral diet-induced developmental changes. This work provides insight into non-genetic inheritance between fertilization and adulthood.

Acetyl-CoA metabolism drives epigenome change and contributes to carcinogenesis risk in fatty liver disease.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)-associated hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is increasing worldwide, but the steps in precancerous hepatocytes which lead to HCC driver mutations are not well understood. Here we provide evidence that metabolically driven histone hyperacetylation in steatotic hepatocytes can increase DNA damage to initiate carcinogenesis. METHODS: Global epigenetic state was assessed in liver samples from high-fat diet or high-fructose diet rodent models, as well as in cultured immortalized human hepatocytes (IHH cells). The mechanisms linking steatosis, histone acetylation and DNA damage were investigated by computational metabolic modelling as well as through manipulation of IHH cells with metabolic and epigenetic inhibitors. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and next-generation sequencing (ChIP-seq) and transcriptome (RNA-seq) analyses were performed on IHH cells. Mutation locations and patterns were compared between the IHH cell model and genome sequence data from preneoplastic fatty liver samples from patients with alcohol-related liver disease and NAFLD. RESULTS: Genome-wide histone acetylation was increased in steatotic livers of rodents fed high-fructose or high-fat diet. In vitro, steatosis relaxed chromatin and increased DNA damage marker γH2AX, which was reversed by inhibiting acetyl-CoA production. Steatosis-associated acetylation and γH2AX were enriched at gene clusters in telomere-proximal regions which contained HCC tumour suppressors in hepatocytes and human fatty livers. Regions of metabolically driven epigenetic change also had increased levels of DNA mutation in non-cancerous tissue from NAFLD and alcohol-related liver disease patients. Finally, genome-scale network modelling indicated that redox balance could be a key contributor to this mechanism. CONCLUSIONS: Abnormal histone hyperacetylation facilitates DNA damage in steatotic hepatocytes and is a potential initiating event in hepatocellular carcinogenesis.

The Australian dingo is an early offshoot of modern breed dogs.

Dogs are uniquely associated with human dispersal and bring transformational insight into the domestication process. Dingoes represent an intriguing case within canine evolution being geographically isolated for thousands of years. Here, we present a high-quality de novo assembly of a pure dingo (CanFam_DDS). We identified large chromosomal differences relative to the current dog reference (CanFam3.1) and confirmed no expanded pancreatic amylase gene as found in breed dogs. Phylogenetic analyses using variant pairwise matrices show that the dingo is distinct from five breed dogs with 100% bootstrap support when using Greenland wolf as the outgroup. Functionally, we observe differences in methylation patterns between the dingo and German shepherd dog genomes and differences in serum biochemistry and microbiome makeup. Our results suggest that distinct demographic and environmental conditions have shaped the dingo genome. In contrast, artificial human selection has likely shaped the genomes of domestic breed dogs after divergence from the dingo.

What physiological role(s) does the alternative oxidase perform in animals?

Although the alternative oxidase, AOX, was known to be widespread in the animal kingdom by 2004, its exact physiological role in animals remains poorly understood. Here we present what evidence has accumulated thus far, indicating that it may play a role in enabling animals to resist various kinds of stress, including toxins, abnormal oxygen or nutrient levels, protein unfolding, dessication and pathogen attack. Much of our knowledge comes from studies in model organisms, where any benefits from exogenously expressed AOX may be masked by its unregulated expression, which may itself be stressful. The further question arises as to why AOX has been lost from some major crown groups, namely vertebrates, insects and cephalopods, if it plays important roles favouring the survival of other animals. We conclude by presenting some speculative ideas addressing this question, and an outline of how it might be approached experimentally.

Metabolomics shows the Australian dingo has a unique plasma profile.

Dingoes occupy a wide range of the Australian mainland and play a crucial role as an apex predator with a generalist omnivorous feeding behaviour. Dingoes are ecologically, phenotypically and behaviourally distinct from modern breed dogs and have not undergone artificial selection since their arrival in Australia. In contrast, humans have selected breed dogs for novel and desirable traits. First, we examine whether the distinct evolutionary histories of dingoes and domestic dogs has lead to differences in plasma metabolomes. We study metabolite composition differences between dingoes (n = 15) and two domestic dog breeds (Basenji n = 9 and German Shepherd Dog (GSD) n = 10). Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, type II and type III ANOVA with post-hoc tests and adjustments for multiple comparisons were used for data evaluation. After accounting for within group variation, 62 significant metabolite differences were detected between dingoes and domestic dogs, with the majority of differences in protein (n = 14) and lipid metabolites (n = 12), mostly lower in dingoes. Most differences were observed between dingoes and domestic dogs and fewest between the domestic dog breeds. Next, we collect a second set of data to investigate variation between pure dingoes (n = 10) and dingo-dog hybrids (n = 10) as hybridisation is common in regional Australia. We detected no significant metabolite differences between dingoes and dingo-dog hybrids after Bonferroni correction. However, power analysis showed that increasing the sample size to 15 could result in differences in uridine 5'-diphosphogalactose (UDPgal) levels related to galactose metabolism. We suggest this may be linked to an increase in Amylase 2B copy number in hybrids. Our study illustrates that the dingo metabolome is significantly different from domestic dog breeds and hybridisation is likely to influence carbohydrate metabolism.

Chromosome-length genome assembly and structural variations of the primal Basenji dog (Canis lupus familiaris) genome.

BACKGROUND: Basenjis are considered an ancient dog breed of central African origins that still live and hunt with tribesmen in the African Congo. Nicknamed the barkless dog, Basenjis possess unique phylogeny, geographical origins and traits, making their genome structure of great interest. The increasing number of available canid reference genomes allows us to examine the impact the choice of reference genome makes with regard to reference genome quality and breed relatedness. RESULTS: Here, we report two high quality de novo Basenji genome assemblies: a female, China (CanFam_Bas), and a male, Wags. We conduct pairwise comparisons and report structural variations between assembled genomes of three dog breeds: Basenji (CanFam_Bas), Boxer (CanFam3.1) and German Shepherd Dog (GSD) (CanFam_GSD). CanFam_Bas is superior to CanFam3.1 in terms of genome contiguity and comparable overall to the high quality CanFam_GSD assembly. By aligning short read data from 58 representative dog breeds to three reference genomes, we demonstrate how the choice of reference genome significantly impacts both read mapping and variant detection. CONCLUSIONS: The growing number of high-quality canid reference genomes means the choice of reference genome is an increasingly critical decision in subsequent canid variant analyses. The basal position of the Basenji makes it suitable for variant analysis for targeted applications of specific dog breeds. However, we believe more comprehensive analyses across the entire family of canids is more suited to a pangenome approach. Collectively this work highlights the importance the choice of reference genome makes in all variation studies.

Towards understanding the evolutionary dynamics of mtDNA.

Historically, mtDNA was considered a selectively neutral marker that was useful for estimating the population genetic history of the maternal lineage. Over time there has been an increasing appreciation of mtDNA and mitochondria in maintaining cellular and organismal health. Beyond energy production, mtDNA and mitochondria have critical cellular roles in signalling. Here we briefly review the structure of mtDNA and the role of the mitochondrion in energy production. We then discuss the predictions that can be obtained from quaternary structure modelling and focus on mitochondrial complex I. Complex I is the primary entry point for electrons into the electron transport system is the largest respiratory complex of the chain and produces about 40% of the proton flux used to synthesize ATP. A focus of the review is Drosophila's utility as a model organism to study the selective advantage of specific mutations. However, we note that the incorporation of insights from a multitude of systems is necessary to fully understand the range of roles that mtDNA has in organismal fitness. We speculate that dietary changes can illicit stress responses that influence the selective advantage of specific mtDNA mutations and cause spatial and temporal fluctuations in the frequencies of mutations. We conclude that developing our understanding of the roles mtDNA has in determining organismal fitness will enable increased evolutionary insight and propose we can no longer assume it is evolving as a strictly neutral marker without testing this hypothesis.

Mitochondria, the gut microbiome and ROS.

In this review, we discuss the connections between mitochondria and the gut microbiome provided by reactive oxygen species (ROS). We examine the mitochondrion as an endosymbiotic organelle that is a hub for energy production, signaling, and cell homeostasis. Maintaining a diverse gut microbiome is generally associated with organismal fitness, intestinal health and resistance to environmental stress. In contrast, gut microbiome imbalance, termed dysbiosis, is linked to a reduction in organismal well-being. ROS are essential signaling molecules but can be damaging when present in excess. Increasing ROS levels have been shown to influence human health, homeostasis of gut cells, and the gastrointestinal microbial community's biodiversity. Reciprocally, gut microbes can affect ROS levels, mitochondrial homeostasis, and host health. We propose that mechanistic understanding of the suite of bi-directional interactions between mitochondria and the gut microbiome will facilitate innovative interdisciplinary studies examining evolutionary divergence and provide novel treatments and therapeutics for disease. GLOSS: In this review, we focus on the nexus between mitochondria and the gut microbiome provided by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Mitochondria are a cell organelle that is derived from an ancestral alpha-proteobacteria. They generate around 80% of the adenosine triphosphate that an organism needs to function and release a range of signaling molecules essential for cellular homeostasis. The gut microbiome is a suite of microorganisms that are commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic to their host. ROS are one predominant group of essential signaling molecules that can be harmful in excess. We suggest that the mitochondria- microbiome nexus is a frontier of research that has cross-disciplinary benefits in understanding genetic divergence and human well-being.

Canfam_GSD: De novo chromosome-length genome assembly of the German Shepherd Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) using a combination of long reads, optical mapping, and Hi-C.

BACKGROUND: The German Shepherd Dog (GSD) is one of the most common breeds on earth and has been bred for its utility and intelligence. It is often first choice for police and military work, as well as protection, disability assistance, and search-and-rescue. Yet, GSDs are well known to be susceptible to a range of genetic diseases that can interfere with their training. Such diseases are of particular concern when they occur later in life, and fully trained animals are not able to continue their duties. FINDINGS: Here, we provide the draft genome sequence of a healthy German Shepherd female as a reference for future disease and evolutionary studies. We generated this improved canid reference genome (CanFam_GSD) utilizing a combination of Pacific Bioscience, Oxford Nanopore, 10X Genomics, Bionano, and Hi-C technologies. The GSD assembly is ∼80 times as contiguous as the current canid reference genome (20.9 vs 0.267 Mb contig N50), containing far fewer gaps (306 vs 23,876) and fewer scaffolds (429 vs 3,310) than the current canid reference genome CanFamv3.1. Two chromosomes (4 and 35) are assembled into single scaffolds with no gaps. BUSCO analyses of the genome assembly results show that 93.0% of the conserved single-copy genes are complete in the GSD assembly compared with 92.2% for CanFam v3.1. Homology-based gene annotation increases this value to ∼99%. Detailed examination of the evolutionarily important pancreatic amylase region reveals that there are most likely 7 copies of the gene, indicative of a duplication of 4 ancestral copies and the disruption of 1 copy. CONCLUSIONS: GSD genome assembly and annotation were produced with major improvement in completeness, continuity, and quality over the existing canid reference. This resource will enable further research related to canine diseases, the evolutionary relationships of canids, and other aspects of canid biology.

Yin and Yang of mitochondrial ROS in Drosophila.

In this study, we test the hypothesis that Drosophila larvae producing mildly elevated levels of endogenous mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) benefit in stressful environmental conditions due to the priming of antioxidant responses. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced as a by-product of oxidative phosphorylation and may be elevated when mutations decrease the efficiency of ATP production. In moderation, ROS are necessary for cell signaling and organismal health, but in excess can damage DNA, proteins, and lipids. We utilize two Drosophila melanogaster strains (Dahomey and Alstonville) that share the same nuclear genetic background but differ in their mitochondrial DNA haplotypes. Previously, we reported that Dahomey larvae harboring the V161L ND4 mtDNA mutation have reduced proton pumping and higher levels of mitochondrial ROS than Alstonville larvae when they are fed a 1:2 protein: carbohydrate (P:C) diet. Here, we explore the potential for mitochondrial ROS to provide resistance to dietary stressors by feeding larvae 1:2 P:C food supplemented with ethanol or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). When fed a diet supplemented with ethanol or H2O2, Dahomey develop more quickly than Alstonville into larger pupae, while Alstonville developed faster on the control. Dahomey larvae displayed higher antioxidant capacity than Alstonville on all diets, with mitochondrial H2O2 levels unchanged after the addition of stressors. Addition of stressors to the diet did not affect the mitochondrial functions of Dahomey larvae as measured by mitochondrial membrane potential, respiratory control ratio, or larval survival after bacterial challenge. In contrast, Alstonville larvae developed slower, had lower pupal weight, higher cytosolic H2O2, and had reduced mitochondrial functions. Further, Alstonville larvae fed the ethanol treated diet had lower survival after bacterial infection than those fed the control diet. Surprisingly, they had greater survival when fed diet with H2O2 indicating a mitotype by stressor interaction that influences the immune response. Overall, these data suggest that elevated mitochondrial ROS in Dahomey can result in greater antioxidant capacity that prevents oxidative damage from exogenous stressors and may be a conserved response to high ethanol found in rotting fruit.

Dietary Macronutrient Management to Treat Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease.

Mitochondrial dysfunction has been demonstrated to play an important role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). The products of several PD-associated genes, including alpha-synuclein, parkin, pink1, protein deglycase DJ-1, and leucine rich repeat kinase 2, have important roles in mitochondrial biology. Thus, modifying mitochondrial function could be a potential therapeutic strategy for PD. Dietary management can alter mitochondrial function as shifts in dietary macronutrients and their ratios in food can alter mitochondrial energy metabolism, morphology and dynamics. Our studies have established that a low protein to carbohydrate (P:C) ratio can increase lifespan, motor ability and mitochondrial function in a parkin mutant Drosophila model of PD. In this review, we describe mitochondrial dysfunction in PD patients and models, and dietary macronutrient management strategies to reverse it. We focus on the effects of protein, carbohydrate, fatty acids, and their dietary ratios. In addition, we propose potential mechanisms that can improve mitochondrial function and thus reverse or delay the onset of PD.

The Australian dingo: untamed or feral?

BACKGROUND: The Australian dingo continues to cause debate amongst Aboriginal people, pastoralists, scientists and the government in Australia. A lingering controversy is whether the dingo has been tamed and has now reverted to its ancestral wild state or whether its ancestors were domesticated and it now resides on the continent as a feral dog. The goal of this article is to place the discussion onto a theoretical framework, highlight what is currently known about dingo origins and taxonomy and then make a series of experimentally testable organismal, cellular and biochemical predictions that we propose can focus future research. DISCUSSION: We consider a canid that has been unconsciously selected as a tamed animal and the endpoint of methodical or what we now call artificial selection as a domesticated animal. We consider wild animals that were formerly tamed as untamed and those wild animals that were formerly domesticated as feralized. Untamed canids are predicted to be marked by a signature of unconscious selection whereas feral animals are hypothesized to be marked by signatures of both unconscious and artificial selection. First, we review the movement of dingo ancestors into Australia. We then discuss how differences between taming and domestication may influence the organismal traits of skull morphometrics, brain and size, seasonal breeding, and sociability. Finally, we consider cellular and molecular level traits including hypotheses concerning the phylogenetic position of dingoes, metabolic genes that appear to be under positive selection and the potential for micronutrient compensation by the gut microbiome. CONCLUSIONS: Western Australian Government policy is currently being revised to allow the widespread killing of the Australian dingo. These policies are based on an incomplete understanding of the evolutionary history of the canid and assume the dingo is feralized. However, accumulated evidence does not definitively show that the dingo was ever domesticated and additional focused research is required. We suggest that incorporating ancient DNA data into the debate concerning dingo origins will be pivotal to understanding the evolutionary history of the canid. Further, we advocate that future morphological, behavioural and genetic studies should focus on including genetically pure Alpine and Desert dingoes and not dingo-dog hybrids. Finally, we propose that future studies critically examine genes under selection in the dingo and employ the genome from a wild canid for comparison.

Exogenous Factors May Differentially Influence the Selective Costs of mtDNA Mutations.

In this review, we provide evidence to suggest that the cost of specific mtDNA mutations can be influenced by exogenous factors. We focus on macronutrient-mitochondrial DNA interactions as factors that may differentially influence the consequences of a change as mitochondria must be flexible in its utilization of dietary proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. To understand this fundamental dynamic, we briefly discuss the energy processing pathways in mitochondria. Next, we explore the mitochondrial functions that are initiated during energy deficiency or when cells encounter cellular stress. We consider the anterograde response (nuclear control of mitochondrial function) and the retrograde response (nuclear changes in response to mitochondrial signaling) and how this mito-nuclear crosstalk may be influenced by exogenous factors such as temperature and diet. Finally, we employ Complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport system as a case study and discuss the potential role of the dietary macronutrient ratio as a strong selective force that may shape the frequencies of mitotypes in populations and species. We conclude that this underexplored field likely has implications in the fundamental disciplines of evolutionary biology and quantitative genetics and the more biomedical fields of nutrigenomics and pharmacogenomics.