Compensation of Adiponectin-Induced Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase and p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling in Rheumatoid Arthritis Synovial Fibroblasts.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disorder marked by synovitis, ultimately leading to cartilage and bone destruction. In RA, adiponectin levels are increased in serum and synovial fluid. Adiponectin belongs to the adipokines, a group of highly bioactive substances secreted by adipocytes and other cell types. It has been shown to induce the production of proinflammatory and prodestructive factors by human RA synovial fibroblasts (RASF), suggesting a role in the pathophysiology of the disease. Although adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) are known to be involved in adiponectin signaling in RASF, no literature is available about whether the different adiponectin isoforms affect AMPK and p38 MAPK signaling in the same manner. In this study, we elucidated the signaling mechanisms in RASF, activated in response to selective stimulation with the 2 biologically most potent adiponectin isoforms, and possible approaches to inhibit adiponectin-mediated effects in RASF. All adiponectin isoforms induced p38 MAPK and AMPK phosphorylation to various degrees. Blocking AMPK activation increased p38 MAPK phosphorylation, while blocking p38 MAPK activation increased AMPK phosphorylation, both independent of the effect of adiponectin. Neither AMPKα1 nor AMPKα2 knockdown reduced interleukin (IL)-6/IL-8 release. Targeting transforming growth factor-activated kinase 1 (TAK1), a signaling molecule upstream of p38 MAPK, reduced the IL-6/IL-8 release. Taken together, our study showed that, in the case of adiponectin isoforms, inhibiting the p38 MAPK or the AMPK signaling pathway individually is not sufficient, probably due to compensatory interactions between these pathways. TAK1 might provide an alternative approach by ameliorating the proinflammatory effects of adiponectin in RA. Our results do not suggest that targeting individual adiponectin isoforms specifically in RA would provide a benefit over targeting adiponectin as a whole. However, whether targeting individual adiponectin isoforms would allow minimizing the loss of the beneficial effects of adiponectin within the metabolic and cardiovascular system still needs further investigation.

Recommendations for Comparison of Productivity Between Fed-Batch and Perfusion Processes.

Due to the growing interest in integrated continuous processing in the biopharmaceutical industry, productivity comparison of batch-based and continuous processes is considered a challenge. Integrated continuous manufacturing of biopharmaceuticals requires scientists and engineers to collaborate effectively. Differing definitions, for example, of volumetric productivity, may cause confusion in this interdisciplinary field. Therefore, the aim of this communication is to reiterate the standard definitions and their underlying assumptions. Applying them to an exemplary model scenario allows to demonstrate the differences and to develop recommendations for the comparison of productivity of different upstream processes.