Young people in foster care and substance use.

Adolescents are at high risk for using substances and for young people in foster care, substance use rates are estimated to be as high as 49 %. Adolescence is an important period for preventing substance use and SUD. Universal screening, brief interventions, and substance use treatment can be used to decrease substance use and substance use disorders among adolescents. Brief interventions often used with adolescents include motivational interviewing and contingency management. Of the many types of outpatient therapies utilized to treat adolescents with substance use disorder, some of the most established include cognitive behavioral therapy, family-based therapy, and a combination of different types of interventions. Medication treatment is less frequently offered to adolescents due to buprenorphine being the only drug FDA approved for youth under the age of 18. Residential treatment is also an option if lower levels of care are not adequate to safely support youth. Lastly, limited research has looked at the effectiveness of continuing care options to support youth in maintaining treatment results.

Pediatric Health and System Impacts of Mass Incarceration, 2009-2020: A Matched Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: The US has the highest incarceration rate in the world; incarceration's direct and indirect toll on the health and health care use of youth is rarely investigated. We sought to compare the health of youth with known personal or family justice involvement and a matched cohort of youth without known personal/family justice involvement. METHODS: A cross-sectional matched parallel cohort study was conducted. We queried electronic health records on youth (<21 years) with a visit in a large Midwestern pediatric hospital-based institution from January 2009 to December 2020. Youth were located by searching for justice-related (eg, prison, jail) keywords within all clinician notes. Health diagnostic profiles were measured using ICD 9/10 codes. Health care use included total admissions, inpatient days, emergent and urgent visits, and outpatient visits. RESULTS: Across all youth at one institution over an 11-year period, 2.2% (N = 38,263) were identified as having probable personal or family justice-involvement. Youth with personal or familial justice involvement had 1.5-16.2 times the prevalence of mental health and physical health diagnoses across all domain groupings compared to a matched sample and the total population sample. From 2009-2020, approximately two-thirds of behavioral health care and nearly a quarter of all hospital inpatient days were attributed to the 2.2% of youth with probable personal or familial justice system involvement. CONCLUSION: The study illuminates the vast disparities between youth with indirect or direct contact with the criminal legal system and matched youth with no documented contact. Better investment in monitoring and prevention efforts are needed.

The Impact of Time Since Menarche for Depressive and Anxiety Symptom Severity in Adolescence and Young Adulthood.

PURPOSE: The study mapped depressive and anxiety symptom trajectories throughout adolescence and early adulthood, arrayed by time since menarche, a novel indicator of pubertal change and examined the effect of age of menarche and pubertal timing, more frequently used variables, on depressive and anxiety symptom severity trajectories. METHODS: Secondary analysis of a cross-sequential prospective longitudinal investigation included a community sample of 262 US, adolescent females. Participants were enrolled in age cohorts of 11, 13, 15, and 17 years. Four annual waves of data were collected. Self-report of age at menarche was categorized into pubertal timing categories. A novel measure "time since menarche" (chronological age at each wave minus age at menarche), was measured along with depressive and anxiety symptom severity. Two-piece growth curve modeling with landmark registration examined depressive and anxiety symptom severity trajectories according to time since menarche. RESULTS: There was no change (p > .05) in depression and anxiety symptom severity before menarche; however, in the years leading away from menarche, depression and anxiety symptom severity decreased (p < .05). Age at menarche was not associated with change in depressive and anxiety symptom severity (p > .05) and there were no moderating effects of pubertal timing. DISCUSSION: Depressive and anxiety symptoms decrease in the years leading away from menarche, suggesting puberty-related psychopathology may be transitory in some individuals. Time since menarche may be a clinically relevant indicator of psychological functioning in pubescent adolescent females. Future studies should examine this variable in larger samples, including more adolescents in the earlier stages of puberty.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Physical Health Outcomes of Children in Foster Care: A Systematic Review.

Children of color-especially Black and Indigenous children-are disproportionately overrepresented in foster care and experience barriers in accessing services and receiving physical and behavioral healthcare compared to their White counterparts. Although racial disparities in mental health outcomes of children in foster care have been examined systematically, less is known about racial disparities in their physical health outcomes. This systematic review aimed to examine disparities in physical health outcomes (i.e., general health, developmental delays and disability, chronic illness, health-compromising behaviors, all-cause mortality) of children in foster care by their race and ethnicity (PROSPERO ID: CRD42021272072). Systematic literature searches were conducted in PubMed, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. Of the 6,102 unique studies identified, 24 met inclusion criteria: peer-reviewed journal article; published from 1991 to 2021; written in English; involved children in the U.S. foster care system; children were primarily in family-based placements; included health outcomes; included children's race and ethnicity; conducted quantitative analyses; and had an observational study design. There was limited evidence to suggest racial disparities among physical health domains examined, in part, due to the small number of studies, variability across study measures and designs, how race and ethnicity were categorized, and how related results were reported. Research that disaggregates results by more nuanced race and ethnicity categories, goes beyond including race and ethnicity as control variables, and uses more robust study designs to understand where racial disparities lie is necessary to inform practice and policy efforts to attain race and health equity in child welfare.

Patterns of substance use among adolescents in and out of foster care: An analysis of linked health and child welfare administrative data.

BACKGROUND: Young adults with a history of foster care have higher risk for substance use disorders. Social systems can deliver substance use prevention to youth; however, the timing of intervention delivery and how needs differ for youth in foster care are unclear. OBJECTIVE: To compare initiation and rates of substance use among adolescents in foster care to demographically similar adolescents never in foster care as identified by the healthcare system, and identify factors associated with increased substance use. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Youth in foster care (n = 2787, ages 10-20, inclusive) and demographically matched youth never in foster care (n = 2787) were identified using linked child welfare and electronic health records from a single pediatric children's hospital and county over a five-year period (2012-2017). METHODS: All healthcare encounters were reviewed and coded for substance use by type (alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, other). Age of first reported or documented substance use was also captured. Demographic and child welfare information was extracted from administrative records. Survival and logistic regression models were estimated. RESULTS: In adjusted models, youth in foster care initiated substance use at earlier ages (HR = 2.50, p < .01) and had higher odds of engaging in use (AOR = 1.54; p < .01) than youth never in care. By age 12, substance use initiation was more likely while youth were in foster care than when they were not in foster care (HR = 1.42, p < .01). Placement stability and family care settings reduced odds of lifetime substance use. CONCLUSIONS: Foster care placement is associated with substance use. Screening may be important for prevention.

Mental Health Diagnoses, Health Care Utilization, and Placement Stability on Antipsychotic Prescribing Among Foster Care Youth.

OBJECTIVE: This study sought to examine how mental health diagnoses, health care utilization and foster care placement instability affect antipsychotic prescribing and how these factors may contribute to disproportionate antipsychotic prescribing among youth in foster care. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study utilized EHR data that were linked to administrative child welfare data. Two outcome variables were analyzed: 1) any antipsychotic prescription documented and 2) number of antipsychotic prescriptions documented. Predictor variables included foster care status, number of unique mental health diagnoses, counts of health care encounters over the study period, and counts of foster care placements. Covariates included gender, persons of color, and age in years. Models were estimated using logistic regression for the dichotomous outcome and Poisson regression for the count outcome. RESULTS: Increased antipsychotic prescribing among children in foster care persists even after accounting for mental health diagnoses and health care utilization. However, the number of placements modified the effect of foster care involvement on antipsychotic prescribing such that after 2 placement changes, the odds of being prescribed an antipsychotic surpassed the effect of foster care involvement. More mental health diagnoses, more inpatient and emergency health care encounters, and more foster care placements were associated with an increased odds of being prescribed an antipsychotic and an increased count of antipsychotic prescriptions. Decreased primary care encounters were associated with increased odds of antipsychotic prescriptions, and decreased specialty encounters were associated with higher counts of antipsychotic prescriptions. CONCLUSIONS: Placement instability is associated with disproportionate antipsychotic prescribing among youth in foster care.

Child Protective Custody Placement for Children with Developmental Disorders.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine whether children with developmental disorders (DDs) in protective custody are more likely to experience specific placement types and stay in care longer than their typically developing peers. Furthermore, in the DD-only group, we examined whether the likelihood of each placement type differed by specific DD diagnosis. METHODS: This observational retrospective study used child welfare administrative data linked to electronic health records in a large Ohio county. Participants were aged 5 to 20 years (N = 2787). DD diagnoses were determined using problem list and encounter diagnosis codes. RESULTS: Children with versus without DD were less likely to be in kinship placement (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.79; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.66-0.94) and more likely to be in congregate care (aOR, 1.26; 95% CI: 1.04-1.53) and nonrelative foster care (aOR, 1.20; 95% CI: 1.00-1.45). A likelihood of independent living placement did not differ for those with and without DD. Those with versus without DD had longer lengths of stay in protective custody ( p ≤ 0.001), but the number of placement changes did not differ after accounting for length of stay. The pattern of results differed somewhat by individual DD diagnosis. CONCLUSION: Compared with their typically developing peers, children with DD are less likely to be in kinship care and tend to have longer lengths of stay in protective custody. If replicated, these findings suggest the need to identify and address mechanisms to support children with DD across placement settings and to better understand factors prolonging their protective custody stay.

Careful: An administrative child welfare and electronic health records linked dataset.

Between 2012 and 2017, N = 2814 youth between the ages of 4 and 20 were in child protective services (CPS) custody in Hamilton County, Ohio, and placed in out-of-home care. Child welfare administrative records were extracted and linked to electronic health records for all encounters at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, with n = 2787 (99.1%) of records successfully linked prior to de-identifying the data for research purposes. Child welfare administrative data fields in the dataset include demographics, dates of entry into and exit from protective custody and out-of-home care, reasons for entry into custody, dates of placement changes, reasons for placement changes, and types of placement (e.g., foster home, kinship home, group home, residential treatment, independent living). Electronic health records (EHR) data fields include demographics, all inpatient and outpatient encounters with medications, diagnoses, screening results, laboratory test results, flowsheet data, and problem list entries. Data have been coded to capture broader categories of health needs and encounter details, medications, and other health concerns. Due to the high representation of children in CPS custody and out-of-home care who are also represented in the EHR data, this dataset provides a comprehensive view of the medical needs and health concerns for school-aged children in CPS custody in an entire county. As a result, these data can be useful for understanding the emergence of global and specific health concerns, frequency of healthcare use, and placement stability for all youth in CPS custody in this community, accounting for variation due to other health and child welfare factors. These data are likely generalizable to other mid-sized urban communities where academic medical centers provide healthcare for children in CPS custody. De-identified data may be made available to other researchers with approved data transfer agreements between academic institutions in place.

Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on stress and Access to Services for Licensed and Kinship Caregivers and Youth in Foster Care.

Children in foster care in the United States face unique challenges related to access to health and education services. With the COVID-19 pandemic, many of those services were temporarily disrupted, adding burden to an already strained system. This observational study describes the experiences of licensed and kinship caregivers (N = 186) during the peak of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders and as restrictions to services were lifted, to understand the overall impact of COVID-19 on this already vulnerable population. Purposive sampling methods were used, where caregivers known to have received placement of children prior to, during, and following COVID-19 stay-at-home orders were identified and recruited to complete a 45-minute phone-administered survey assessing stress, risks for contracting COVID-19, strain resulting from COVID-19, and access to services for children in foster care in their care across five domains: healthcare, mental health, education, child welfare, and family visitation. Differences by caregiver type (licensed, kinship) and timing in the pandemic were examined. Licensed and kinship caregivers reported similar social and economic impacts of COVID-19, including similar rates of distress for themselves and the youth placed with them. Almost half of caregivers experienced challenges accessing mental health services, with access to services more disrupted during COVID-19 stay-at-home orders. Caregiver reports regarding the social and economic impacts of COVID-19 were similar across the study, suggesting that lessened restrictions have not alleviated strain for this population.

Enrollment and outcomes of home visiting for mothers with and without a history of out-of-home care.

Women previously in out-of-home care (i.e., foster care) experience poorer health and psychosocial outcomes compared to peers, including higher pregnancy rates and child protective services involvement. Home visiting programs could mitigate risks. Studies examining home visiting enrollment for women with a history of out-of-home care are needed. Women previously in out-of-home care based on child welfare administrative data between 2012 and 2017 (n = 1375) were compared to a demographically matched sample (n = 1375) never in out-of-home care. Vital records data identified live births in the two groups. For those who had given live birth (n = 372), linked administrative data were used to determine and compare rates of referral and enrollment into home visiting, and two indicators of engagement: number of days enrolled, and number of visits received. Women previously in out-of-home care were referred for home visiting more often than their peers. There were no differences in rates of enrollment. Women previously in out-of-home care remained enrolled for shorter durations and completed fewer home visits than peers. Findings suggest barriers to home visiting enrollment and retention in home visiting programs for women previously in out-of-home care. Studies with larger samples and more complete assessments of outcomes are warranted.

Introducción: Las mujeres que previamente han estado bajo cuidado fuera de cada (v.g. hogares de cuidado adoptivo temporal) experimentan una más débil salud y resultados sicosociales en comparación con las compañeras, incluyendo tasas más altas de embarazos y participación en servicios de protección a la niñez. Los programas de visitas a casa pudieran mitigar los riesgos. Se necesitan estudios que examinen la entrada en programas de visitas a casa de mujeres con un historial de cuidado fuera de casa. Métodos: Se comparó la información administrativa entre 2012 y 2017 de mujeres (n = 1375) que previamente estuvieron en cuidados fuera de casa basados en la beneficencia infantil con un grupo muestra demográficamente emparejado (n = 1375) que nunca habían estado bajo cuidado fuera de casa. Los datos vitales registrados identificaron nacimientos vivos en los dos grupos. Para quienes habían tenido un parto y nacimiento vivo (n = 372), se usó la información administrativa conectada para determinar y comparar las tasas de referencia y entrada en programas de visitas a casa, y dos indicadores de participación: el número de días en que estuvieron matriculadas y el número de visitas recibidas. Resultados: A las mujeres previamente bajo cuidado fuera de casa se les refirió a los programas de visita a casa más a menudo que a sus compañeras. No se dieron diferencias en las tasas de matrícula. Las mujeres previamente bajo cuidado fuera de casa permanecieron matriculadas por duraciones más cortas y completaron menos visitas a casa que sus compañeras. Conclusiones: Los resultados identifican barreras a la matrícula y retención en programas de visitas a casa para mujeres previamente bajo cuidado fuera de casa. Se justifican los estudios con grupos muestras más grandes y evaluaciones más completas de los resultados.

Les femmes ayant été placées en famille ou foyer d'accueil font l'expérience d'une plus mauvaise santé et de résultats psychologiques moins bons que les autres femmes, y compris des taux de grossesse plus élevés et l'intervention de services de protection de l'enfance. Les programmes de visite à domicile peuvent mitiger les risques. Les études examinant l'inscription aux visites à domicile pour les femmes ayant un passé de placement en famille ou en foyer sont nécessaires. Méthodes: des femmes ayant vécu un placement en famille ou en foyer selon les données administratives de la protection de l'enfance entre 2012 et 2017 (n = 1375) ont été comparées à un échantillon assorti démographiquement (n = 1375) de femmes n'ayant jamais été placées en famille ou foyer d'accueil. Nous avons identifié des naissances vivantes chez les deux groupes. Pour celles ayant donné naissance (naissance vivante) (n = 372) les données administratives liées ont été utilisées afin de déterminer et de comparer les taux d'orientation et d'inscription aux visites à domicile, et deux indicateurs d'engagement: le nombre de jours inscrites et le nombre de visites reçues. Résultats: les femmes ayant été placées dans des familles ou des foyers d'accueil étaient dirigées vers les visites à domicile plus souvent que leurs pairs. Il n'y avait aucune différence dans les taux d'inscription. Les femmes ayant été en familles ou foyers d'accueil sont restées inscrites pendant des durées plus courtes et ont eu moins de visites à domiciles que leurs pairs. Conclusions: les résultats suggèrent qu'il existe des barrières à l'inscription aux visites à domicile et à la rétention dans les programmes de visites à domicile pour les femmes ayant été placées en famille ou en foyer. Des études avec des échantillons plus grands et des évaluations plus compètes sont justifiées.

Impact of Automated Information Sharing on Health Care Delivery to Youths in Foster Care.

Children in foster care have higher health care costs and poor care coordination, often due to inconsistent information exchanged between health care and child welfare systems. This study implemented secure automated information sharing and detected improvements in time spent gathering information, health care services delivered, and billing practices at participating health care systems.

Development and Preliminary Validation of a Multidimensional Psychosocial Assessment Strategy for Young Adults With Cancer.

OBJECTIVE: Regular psychosocial assessment is a best-practice guideline for young adult oncology care, but multipurpose, multidimensional, developmentally appropriate patient-reported outcome measurement strategies for young adults with cancer are lacking. This study reported on the development and preliminary validation of the Young Adult Psychosocial Assessment Strategy (YA-PAS), a tool designed to meet this clinical need. METHODS: The YA-PAS was developed based on the literature and clinician feedback. 20 young adults with cancer participated in cognitive interviews to provide feedback on complexity, readability, and applicability to inform measure refinement. Following refinements, 100 young adults with a history of cancer participated in an observational study including a preliminary evaluation of YA-PAS factor structure, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, construct and criterion validity, feasibility, and acceptability. RESULTS: Cognitive interviews and psychometric evaluation informed modifications and resulted in a measure with 9 domains (anxiety, depression, cognitive functioning, post-traumatic stress, family stressors, support, social isolation, self-efficacy for symptom management, and self-efficacy for medication management) and nonscoring items assessing substance use, life stressors, resources, educational/vocational status, and relationship status. 8 of 9 domains demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α ≥ 0.70), substantial (r = 0.61-0.80) or almost perfect (r > 0.80) test-retest reliability, and evidence of domain and cut-point validity. 89% of participants were able to complete the YA-PAS within 20 min and 87% were satisfied with the measure. CONCLUSIONS: The YA-PAS demonstrated promising psychometric properties, feasibility, and acceptability. Clinical implications and research recommendations are discussed.

Opportunities for Enhanced Transition of Care Preparation for Adolescents and Emerging Adults With Type 1 Diabetes: Use of the READDY Transition Tool.

There is an ongoing need to determine best practices for effective transition from pediatric to adult care for adolescents and emerging adults (EAs) with type 1 diabetes given the potential for poor health outcomes post-transfer. This study evaluated self-reported confidence ratings as measured by the Readiness of Emerging Adults with Diabetes Diagnosed in Youth (READDY) tool among adolescents and EAs with type 1 diabetes and the association of the confidence ratings with clinical and demographic characteristics, as well as provider documentation of relevant anticipatory guidance topics. The READDY is a diabetes-specific tool used to collect patient-reported confidence in transition preparation topics to target educational interventions. These interventions are divided into four domains: Diabetes Knowledge, Health System Navigation, Insulin Self-Management, and Health Behaviors. A retrospective chart review was conducted of patients 15-24 years of age with type 1 diabetes who completed the READDY survey between January 2017 and January 2018 at a single center. Overall patient-reported confidence levels were high. However, adolescents and EAs endorsed their lowest levels of confidence on items assessing knowledge of alcohol, tobacco, sexual health, and the impact of diabetes on pregnancy (females only), with the percentages of low scores of 20.7, 25.9, 35.9, and 42.9%, respectively. Documentation of provider counseling about screening and prevention of diabetes comorbidities, alcohol use, and tobacco use was associated with scores in the higher range for the corresponding item in the READDY survey. These findings highlight an opportunity to create interventions related to developmentally important topics for adolescents and EAs with type 1 diabetes to enhance successful transition preparation.

Patterns of healthcare utilization with placement changes for youth in foster care.

BACKGROUND: Children in foster care experience poor health and high healthcare use. Child welfare agencies frequently require healthcare visits when children enter foster care; subsequent placement changes also disrupt healthcare. Studies of healthcare use have not accounted for placement changes. OBJECTIVE: To understand patterns of healthcare use throughout the time a child enters foster care and with placement changes, accounting for mandated visits when children enter foster care or experience a placement change. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Children 4 and older in foster care between 2012 and 2017 (N = 2787) with linked child welfare administrative data from one county child welfare agency and one Midwest pediatric healthcare system. METHODS: Negative binomial models predicted healthcare days per month that were planned (e.g., scheduled primary/specialty care), unplanned (e.g., emergency care), or missed. RESULTS: Planned healthcare days increased as a function of placement changes (Incident Rate Ratio [IRR] =1.69, p < .05) and decreased with placement stability (IRR = 0.92, p < .01). Mandated visits that occurred later in a placement were associated with fewer planned (IRR = 0.81, p < .01) and unplanned (IRR = 0.82, p < .01) healthcare days during that placement. CONCLUSIONS: Patterns of planned healthcare over the time children are in one placement and move between placements suggest more can be done to ensure youth remain connected to primary and specialty care throughout placements and placement transitions, s that children are seen as clinically appropriate rather than a function of placement disruption. Findings regarding the timing of mandated visits suggest that delays in mandated care may also reflect lower healthcare use overall.

Systematic Review of Substance Use Measurement Tools in Adolescent and Young Adult Childhood Cancer Survivors.

Substance use among adolescents and young adults (AYAs) is associated with an increased risk of poor physical and mental health outcomes. For AYA childhood cancer survivors (CCSs), substance use may also increase their likelihood of experiencing late effects. As a result, professional organizations recommend that AYA CCSs be regularly screened for risk behaviors, including substance use. The best methods for assessing these behaviors as part of clinical care for AYA CCSs, however, remain unclear. To begin to address this gap, the purpose of this study was to systematically review written substance use measures that have been used with AYA CCSs and published between 2000 and 2020. A search of PubMed, PsycINFO, and CINAHL using terms related to substance use and AYA CCSs identified 47 articles representing 20 different written substance use measures that evaluated current substance use (i.e., use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, prescription medications taken in a manner other than as prescribed, and/or other illicit substances within the 12 months). Measures varied in domains assessed, item formats, and response formats. Results are presented alongside recommendations for selecting screening tools for use with AYA CCS populations in both clinical and research settings.

Resilience factors in youth transitioning out of foster care: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: Youth who emancipate from the foster care system often experience poor outcomes during their transition into independent living (e.g., criminal justice involvement and homelessness). Yet, some youth are resilient and achieve positive outcomes. The purpose of this study is to review the resilience factors identified in the literature for youth transitioning out of care. METHOD: A systematic review of the literature was conducted using PsycINFO, PubMed, and EMBASE databases. A total of 12 studies met our inclusion criteria. RESULTS: A total of 38 different resilience factors were identified across the studies reviewed. From these resilience factors, 18 were statistically significant, including four assets and 14 resources. CONCLUSION: Understanding the assets and resources that promote resilience can aid clinicians in assessing and capitalizing on youths' strengths and can help researchers develop effective interventions and target gaps in the literature. Further, it can assist policymakers in generating legislation to improve outcomes for foster youth transitioning out of care. To assist in this process, we systematically reviewed studies to provide a summary of resilience factors currently identified in the literature. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).