Carajurin Induces Apoptosis in Leishmania amazonensis Promastigotes through Reactive Oxygen Species Production and Mitochondrial Dysfunction.

Carajurin is the main constituent of Arrabidaea chica species with reported anti-Leishmania activity. However, its mechanism of action has not been described. This study investigated the mechanisms of action of carajurin against promastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis. Carajurin was effective against promastigotes with IC50 of 7.96 ± 1.23 µg.mL-1 (26.4 µM), and the cytotoxic concentration for peritoneal macrophages was 258.2 ± 1.20 µg.mL-1 (856.9 µM) after 24 h of treatment. Ultrastructural evaluation highlighted pronounced swelling of the kinetoplast with loss of electron-density in L. amazonensis promastigotes induced by carajurin treatment. It was observed that carajurin leads to a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential (p = 0.0286), an increase in reactive oxygen species production (p = 0.0286), and cell death by late apoptosis (p = 0.0095) in parasites. Pretreatment with the antioxidant NAC prevented ROS production and significantly reduced carajurin-induced cell death. The electrochemical and density functional theory (DFT) data contributed to support the molecular mechanism of action of carajurin associated with the ROS generation, for which it is possible to observe a correlation between the LUMO energy and the electroactivity of carajurin in the presence of molecular oxygen. All these results suggest that carajurin targets the mitochondria in L. amazonensis. In addition, when assessed for its drug-likeness, carajurin follows Lipinski''s rule of five, and the Ghose, Veber, Egan, and Muegge criteria.

Flow-Cytometric Method for Viability Analysis of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Other Cell-Culture-Contaminant Mollicutes.

Mycoplasma is the smallest self-replicating bacteria, figuring as common contaminant of eukaryotic cell cultures. Production inputs and operator's manipulation seem to be the main sources of such contamination. Many analytical approaches have been applied for mycoplasma detection in cell cultures and also in biological products. However, unless they were validated, only indicator cell culture and bacteriological culture are considered as compendial methods for quality control of biological products. Nano-flow cytometry has been pointed out as an alternative technique for addressing prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell viability being a substantial tool for reference material production. In this study, a viability-flow-cytometry assay was standardized for M. gallisepticum and then applied to other cell-culture-contaminant mycoplasmas. For this, M. galliseticum's growth rate was observed and different treatments were evaluated to establish low viability cultures (cell death-induced control). Distinct viability markers and their ideal concentrations (titration) were appraised. Ethanol treatment showed to be the best death-inducing control. CFDA and TOPRO markers revealed to be the best choice for detecting live and dead mycoplasma frequencies, respectively. The standardized methodology was applied to Mycoplasma arginini, M. hyorhinis, M. orale, Spiroplasma citri and Acholeplasma laidlawii. Significant statistical difference was observed in the percentage of viable cells in comparison to ethanol treatment for A. laidlawii in CFDA and in both markers for M. gallisepticum, M. hyorhinis and S. citri. In summary, we standardized a flow cytometry assay for assessing M. gallisepticum - and potentially other species - viability and ultimately applied for reference material production improving the quality control of biological products.

Immunophenotyping in saliva as an alternative approach for evaluation of immunopathogenesis in chronic periodontitis.

BACKGROUND: To date, flow cytometric immunophenotyping has not been used to investigate immune patterns in saliva samples from individuals with inflammatory processes in the oral cavity, such as chronic periodontitis (CP). Saliva analysis could be a non-invasive method for evaluating oral health. The objective of this study is to determine the phenotype of leukocytes and total immunoglobulin A (IgA), IgG, and IgM titers in the saliva of individuals with CP. METHODS: Saliva samples were obtained from patients with CP (n = 12) and from a control group (n = 27) without oral diseases. Flow cytometry was performed to determine the frequency of T cells (CD4(+) and CD8(+)), B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells as well as the total leukocyte population. Immunoglobulin titers were determined by dot enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: Cell immunophenotyping revealed that patients with CP had a higher frequency of total leukocytes (47.94% ± 5.1%; P < 0.001), B cells (43.93% ± 6.2%; P = 0.006), NK cells (0.16% ± 0.04%; P = 0.03), and CD4(+) T cells (38.99% ± 4.4%; P = 0.002) than individuals without oral pathologies (24.75% ± 2.2%, 20.60% ± 2.7%, 0.09% ± 0.03%, and 16.82% ± 3.5%, respectively). No significant differences in salivary total IgA, IgG, and IgM titers were found between the two cohorts studied. Nevertheless, higher total IgG levels were observed in patients with CP, which could indicate a possible correlation between clinical attachment level and salivary IgG (P = 0.07; r(2) = 0.08). CONCLUSION: These results show that cell phenotyping by flow cytometry could be an effective tool for determining leukocyte profiles in saliva samples from patients with CP and healthy individuals.

Leishmania braziliensis-reactive T cells are down-regulated in long-term cured cutaneous Leishmaniasis, but the renewal capacity of T effector memory compartments is preserved.

Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis control and tissue damage relate to the effector immune response, which in turn affects clinical outcome. Leishmania reactive CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells are expanded in long-term healed cutaneous leishmaniasis (hCL) patients but their functional characteristics remain to be determined. This study investigates antigen-specific recall in long-term healed CL caused by L. braziliensis infection. Healed CL subjects were grouped according to the time elapsed since the end of therapy: less than two years and two to five years. Activation phenotype (CD69(+) or CD25(+)) and subpopulations of memory T cell phenotypes [central memory (Tcm): CD45RO(+) CCR7(+) or effector memory (Tem): CD45RO(+) CCR7(-)] were quantified in ex vivo blood mononuclear cells and after Leishmania antigens stimuli. A reduction in the percentage of activated Leishmania-responder CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in hCL was associated with the time elapsed since clinical cure. Percentage of CD69(+) in TCD4(+) and TCD8(+) cells were negatively correlated with IL-10 levels. Ex vivo analyses showed contracted Tem CD4(+) and Tem CD8(+) compartments from hCL with long time elapsed since clinical cure, although renewal of these compartments was observed following in vitro exposure to leishmanial stimuli. Our results show that healed L. braziliensis infected patients exhibit a recall response to Leishmania antigens with evident expansion of effector memory T cells. Regulated leishmanial-specific response seems to emerge only about two years after initial contact with the parasite antigens.

In silico predicted epitopes from the COOH-terminal extension of cysteine proteinase B inducing distinct immune responses during Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis experimental murine infection.

BACKGROUND: Leishmania parasites have been reported to interfere and even subvert their host immune responses to enhance their chances of survival and proliferation. Experimental Leishmania infection in mice has been widely used in the identification of specific parasite virulence factors involved in the interaction with the host immune system. Cysteine-proteinase B (CPB) is an important virulence factor in parasites from the Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana complex: it inhibits lymphocytes Th1 and/or promotes Th2 responses either through proteolytic activity or through epitopes derived from its COOH-terminal extension. In the present study we analyzed the effects of Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis CPB COOH-terminal extension-derived peptides on cell cultures from murine strains with distinct levels of susceptibility to infection: BALB/c, highly susceptible, and CBA, mildly resistant. RESULTS: Predicted epitopes, obtained by in silico mapping, displayed the ability to induce cell proliferation and expression of cytokines related to Th1 and Th2 responses. Furthermore, we applied in silico simulations to investigate how the MHC/epitopes interactions could be related to the immunomodulatory effects on cytokines, finding evidence that specific interaction patterns can be related to in vitro activities. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our results, we consider that some peptides from the CPB COOH-terminal extension may influence host immune responses in the murine infection, thus helping Leishmania survival.

TLR4 promotes B cell maturation: independence and cooperation with B lymphocyte-activating factor.

We have previously shown that TLR4 triggering promotes the generation of CD23(+)CD93(+) transitional T2-like cells in vitro from mouse B cell precursors, suggesting a possible role for this receptor in B cell maturation. In this study, we perform an extensive study of cell surface markers and functional properties of B cells matured in vitro with LPS, comparatively with the well-known B cell maturation factor B lymphocyte-activating factor (BAFF). LPS increased generation of CD23(+) transitional B cells in a TLR4-dependent way, upregulating IgD and CD21 and downregulating CD93, without inducing cell proliferation, in a manner essentially equivalent to BAFF. For both BAFF and LPS, functional maturation of the IgM(+)CD23(+)CD93(+) cells was confirmed by their higher proliferative response to anti-CD40 plus IL-4 compared with IgM(+)CD23(neg)CD93(+) cells. BAFF-R-Fc-mediated neutralization experiments showed that TLR4-induced B cell maturation was independent of BAFF. Distinct from BAFF, maturation by LPS relied on the activation of canonical NF-kappaB pathway, and the two factors together had complementary effects, leading to higher numbers of IgM(+)CD23(+)CD93(+) cells with their simultaneous addition. Importantly, BCR cross-linking abrogated the generation of CD23(+) B cells by LPS or BAFF, indicating that signals mimicking central tolerance act on both systems. Addition of cyclosporin A reverted BCR-mediated inhibition, both for BAFF and LPS, suggesting similar regulation of signaling pathways by calcineurin. Finally, LPS-injected mice showed a rapid increase of mature B cells in the bone marrow, suggesting that TLR4 signaling may effectively stimulate B cell maturation in vivo, acting as an accessory stimulus in B cell development, complementary to the BAFF physiological pathway.

T cells specific to leishmania and other nonrelated microbial antigens can migrate to human leishmaniasis skin lesions.

Immunopathological studies have contributed to the characterization of in situ inflammatory infiltrates in cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL). However, little is known about the T-cell antigen reactivity of these lesions. Our objective was to analyze the responsiveness of lymphocytes from CL lesions to leishmanial and nonrelated antigens in terms of proliferation and the production of cytokines. Mononuclear cells were extracted from lesions, and blood from CL patients infected with Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. Activated cells accounted for 35-45% of lesions T-cell subsets. Elevated levels of C1.7/CD244(+)CD8(+) T cells suggest in situ cytotoxic effector function. Lymphocytes isolated from the leishmaniasis lesions proliferated and produced IFN-gamma in response to leishmanial antigens as well as to irrelevant antigens such as Toxoplasma gondii (Tg). Patients presenting with larger lesions had the highest lymphocyte proliferation indexes. A high frequency of Tg-specific cells was detected in the lesions by limiting dilution assay, similar to the frequency of Leishmania-specific cells. Importantly, Tg-reactive cells were not found in lesions of patients without a history of toxoplasmosis. The proportion of Leishmania-reactive CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the lesions was quite variable. Overall, these data suggest that T cells reactive to nonrelevant antigens can migrate to leishmanial lesions and possibly influence the pathogenesis of the disease.

Cell phenotyping in saliva of individuals under psychological stress.

Total leukocytes, NK cells, B and T lymphocytes present in the saliva of medical students with or without stress were quantified by flow cytometry in 10,000 events. The symptoms of psychological stress were monitored with Lipp's Inventory of Stress Symptoms for Adults (ISSL). No significant differences were observed in the number of cells phenotyped in students with and those without psychological stress. However, a negative correlation was observed between the number of NK cells and T lymphocytes in students with stress (r=-0.8173; p=0.0058), suggesting that innate immunity is predominant in the adaptation phase.

Synthesis, pharmacological evaluation and electrochemical studies of novel 6-nitro-3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-N-acylhydrazone derivatives: Discovery of LASSBio-881, a new ligand of cannabinoid receptors.

We describe herein the discovery of LASSBio-881 (3c) as a novel in vivo antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and in vitro antiproliferative and antioxidant compound, with a cannabinoid ligand profile. We observed that LASSBio-881 (3c) was able to bind to CB1 receptors (71% at 100microM) and also to inhibit T-cell proliferation (66% at 10microM) probably by binding to CB2 receptors, in a non-proapoptotic manner, different from anandamide (1). It was also demonstrated that LASSBio-881 (3c) had an important antioxidant profile toward free radicals (DPPH and hydroxyl), probably due to its particular redox behavior, which reflects the presence of both nitro and 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl sub-units, as demonstrated by cyclic voltammetry studies. In addition, we showed that these structural sub-units are essential for the observed pharmacological activity.

Single and concomitant experimental infectionsby Endotrypanum spp. and Leishmania (Viannia) guyanensis (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in the Neotropical sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae)

Lutzomyia longipalpis females received single and mixed infections with Endotrypanum and Leishmania. Two biological parameters were analyzed: the percentage of infected females and the distribution of flagellates in the gut of the females. The principal comparisons were performed between (1) two strains of Endotrypanum, (2) cloned versus primary sample of one strain of Endotrypanum, (3) Endotrypanum versus Leishmania guyanensis, and (4) the pattern of flagellates behaviour by optical microscopy in females with single or mixed infection versus the identification of parasites isolated from digestive tracts by isoenzyme electrophoresis. Flagellates of Endotrypanum showed distinct patterns of infection suggesting that there is variation between and within strains. The distribution of Endotrypanum and L. guyanensis differed significantly in relation to the colonization of the stomodeal valve. In co-infection with L. guyanensis, a large number of flagellates were seen to be plentifully infecting the stomodeal valve in significantly more specimens than in females infected by Endotrypanum only. However, the electrophoretic profiles of isoenzymes of parasites recovered from all co-infected specimens corresponded to Endotrypanum. This suggests that the mere correlation sand fly infection-biochemical analysis of isolates may induce parasitological incorrect consideration.

High levels of filamentous actin and apoptosis correlate with mast cell refractoriness under alloxan-evoked diabetes.

Mast cell number and reactivity were shown to be down-regulated under diabetic conditions. Since the balance between globular and filamentous actin plays a pivotal role in the activity of secretory cells, we investigated whether an imbalance in that system could underlie the hyporesponsiveness of mast cells in diabetes. The apoptotic state was also evaluated. By means of rhodamine/phalloidine staining of F-actin, we noted that diabetic mast cells exhibited an increase in fluorescence intensity and reduction in cellular size, when compared with cells from normal animals, in parallel with elevation in the percentage of cells developing apoptosis. The levels of Bax, a pro-apoptotic member of Bcl-2 family, appeared increased at baseline in mast cells from diabetic rats compared with normal cells. These phenomena correlated with reduction in histamine and PGD2 release following antigen challenge in vitro. The steroid antagonist RU 486 abolished the reduction of histamine secretion from diabetic mast cells. We conclude that hyporesponsiveness of mast cells noted in diabetes may be accounted for by reduction in actin filament plasticity, in clear association with the rise in the percentage of cells undergoing apoptosis. In addition, the refractoriness of diabetic mast cells to antigen in vitro seems to be dependent on glucocorticoids.

Single and concomitant experimental infections by Endotrypanum spp. and Leishmania (Viannia) guyanensis (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in the neotropical sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae).

Lutzomyia longipalpis females received single and mixed infections with Endotrypanum and Leishmania. Two biological parameters were analyzed: the percentage of infected females and the distribution of flagellates in the gut of the females. The principal comparisons were performed between (1) two strains of Endotrypanum, (2) cloned versus primary sample of one strain of Endotrypanum, (3) Endotrypanum versus Leishmania guyanensis, and (4) the pattern of flagellates behaviour by optical microscopy in females with single or mixed infection versus the identification of parasites isolated from digestive tracts by isoenzyme electrophoresis. Flagellates of Endotrypanum showed distinct patterns of infection suggesting that there is variation between and within strains. The distribution of Endotrypanum and L. guyanensis differed significantly in relation to the colonization of the stomodeal valve. In co-infection with L. guyanensis, a large number of flagellates were seen to be plentifully infecting the stomodeal valve in significantly more specimens than in females infected by Endotrypanum only. However, the electrophoretic profiles of isoenzymes of parasites recovered from all co-infected specimens corresponded to Endotrypanum. This suggests that the mere correlation sand fly infection-biochemical analysis of isolates may induce parasitological incorrect consideration.

Haemoglobin biosynthesis site in rabbit embryo erythroid cells.

Properly metabolized globin synthesis and iron uptake are indispensable for erythroid cell differentiation and maturation. Mitochondrial participation is crucial in the process of haeme synthesis for cytochromes and haemoglobin. We studied the final biosynthesis site of haemoglobin using an ultrastructural approach, with erythroid cells obtained from rabbit embryos, in order to compare these results with those of animals treated with saponine or phenylhydrazine. Our results are similar to those obtained in assays with adult mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish, after induction of haemolytic anaemia. Therefore, the treatment did not interfere with the process studied, confirming our previous findings. Immunoelectron microscopy showed no labelling of mitochondria or other cellular organelles supposedly involved in the final biosynthesis of haemoglobin molecules, suggesting instead that it occurs free in the cytoplasm immediately after the liberation of haeme from the mitochondria, by electrostatic attraction between haeme and globin chains.

Comparison of dengue infection in human mononuclear leukocytes with mosquito C6/36 and mammalian Vero cells using flow cytometry to detect virus antigen

Fluorescent activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis is useful for the detection of cellular surface antigens and intracellular proteins. We used this methodology in order to detect and quantify dengue antigens in highly susceptible cells such as clone C6/36 (Aedes albopictus) and Vero cells (green monkey kidney). Additionally, we analyzed the infection in vitro of human peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBML). FACS analysis turned out to be a reliable technique to quantify virus growth in traditional cell cultures of C6/36 as well as Vero cells. High rates of infection were achieved with a good statistical correlation between the virus amount used in infection and the percentage of dengue antigen containing cells detected in infected cultures. We also showed that human monocytes (CD14+) are preferred target cells for in vitro dengue infection among PBML. Monocytes were much less susceptible to virus infection than cell lines but they displayed dengue antigens detected by FACS five days after infection. In contrast, lymphocytes showed no differences in their profile for dengue specific immunofluorescence. Without an animal model to reproduce dengue disease, alternative assays have been sought to correlate viral virulence with clinical manifestations and disease severity. Study of in vitro interaction of virus and host cells may highlight this relationship.

Detection of intracytoplasmic cytokines by flow cytometry

Flow cytometry has been used as a powerful technique for studying cell surface antigen expression as well as intracellular molecules. Its capability of analyzing multiple parameters simultaneously on a single cell has allowed identification and studies of functional cell subsets within heterogeneous populations. In this respect, several techniques have been developed during the past few years to study cytokine-producing cells by flow cytometry in humans and several animal models.

Flow cytometry in the study of cell death

In this report we present a concise review concerning the use of flow cytometric methods to characterize and differentiate between two different mechanisms of cell death, apoptosis and necrosis. The applications of these techniques to clinical and basic research are also considered. The following cell features are useful to characterize the mode of cell death: (1) activation of an endonuclease in apoptotic cells results in extraction of the low molecular weight DNA following cell permeabilization, which, in turn, leads to their decreased stainability with DNA-specific fluorochromes. Measurements of DNA content make it possible to identify apoptotic cells and to recognize the cell cycle phase specificity of apoptotic process; (2) plasma membrane integrity, which is lost in necrotic but not in apoptotic cells; (3) the decrease in forward light scatter, paralleled either by no change or an increase in side scatter, represent early changes during apoptosis. The data presented indicate that flow cytometry can be applied to basic research of the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of apoptosis, as well as in the clinical situations, where the ability to monitor early signs of apoptosis in some systems may be predictive for the outcome of some treatment protocols.

Characterization of CD4 and CD8 bearing cells in intestines of rotavirus susceptible (suckling) and resistant (adult/weanling) mice by flow cytometry

Suckling mice are susceptible to several virus infections and develop diarrhea after rotavirus inoculation whereas 3 week-old and older mice are resistant. Since young mice have a n immature immune system, we investigated the status of CD4 and CD8 bearing T-lymphocytes in intestines of 1, 3-4 and 8-10 week-old mice. Unicellular suspensions of the total small intestine were prepared. Cells were stained with monoclonal antibodies reactive to CD4 and CD8 molecules and were analyzed by flow cystometry. Percentages of CD8+ and CD4+CD8+ cells were markedly increased in intestines of suckling mice when compared to adults. CD4+ cells were apparently not altered. Rotavirus SA-11 infected diarrheic suckling mice presented a decrease of all three studied lymphocyte subpopulations, whereas no changes were observed in virus inoculated weanling mice. We suggest that higher proportions of CD4+CD8+ and CD8+ cells in intestines of suckling mice may play a role in the susceptibility to rotavirus, which would disable the animals to develop a rapid and efficient immune response resulting in resistance.