Trends of clandestine laboratories manufacturing methamphetamine in New Zealand between 2009-2021: Evolution, enforcement, legislative, and COVID-19 effects.

The most common method of domestic methamphetamine manufacture encountered in New Zealand is the hydrogen iodide (HI) reduction of pseudoephedrine/ephedrine. While the overall method used to manufacture methamphetamine has remained consistent, the processes and chemicals utilized have evolved. Understanding the reason for any changes to methamphetamine manufacturing trends can assist jurisdictions with predicting the potential effects of enforcement and legislative initiatives. This paper presents data and trends amassed from suspected clandestine laboratories, associated with the manufacture of methamphetamine, in New Zealand between 2009 and 2021, along with data on methamphetamine, pseudoephedrine, and ephedrine seizures at the border. The data have shown that clandestine manufacturers in New Zealand have evolved the methamphetamine manufacturing process over the years. These changes in trends can largely be attributed to various enforcement and legislative effects and the COVID-19 pandemic response. Effects that enforcement, legislation, and the COVID-19 pandemic response may have had on the precursors, chemicals and equipment encountered are discussed.

Quantification of mixtures of analogues of illicit substances by benchtop NMR spectroscopy.

This paper investigates the possibility of using benchtop NMR spectroscopy for quantification of illicit drugs (methamphetamine) in binary and ternary mixtures with impurities and cutting agents (N-isopropylbenzylamine, phenethylamine and dimethylsulfone). To avoid handling regulated substances, methamphetamine in our experiments is substituted with amino-2-propanol, which has similar functional groups and chemical structure to methamphetamine and hence a related NMR spectrum. Binary and ternary mixtures at concentrations from 30 mmol/L up to 500 mmol/L for each of these species were measured using a 60 MHz benchtop spectrometer. The spectra were analysed using both integration and a model-based algorithm that relies on a full quantum mechanical description of the studied spin systems. Both techniques were able to quantify the composition of the mixtures. The root mean squared error in the measured concentration using the model-based algorithm was < 10 mmol/L, whereas the error using integration was typically > 20 mmol/L. Thus, we conclude benchtop NMR is viable for quantitative measurements of mixtures of illicit substances, particularly when coupled with a quantum mechanical model for the analysis.

Fantasy islands - The emergence of NMP in GBL-containing liquids in New Zealand.

Over the last few years there has been a dramatic increase in the amount of "Fantasy" type drugs seized in New Zealand, with gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) being by far the most prevalent. In 2018, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) was detected in a liquid, along with GBL, for the first time in New Zealand. Since this seizure, the number of seizures containing mixtures of GBL and NMP that have been submitted for analysis by New Zealand authorities have significantly increased, with 82% of submitted samples containing GBL also containing NMP. Analysis of these liquids showed that the majority had GBL and NMP purities of approximately 60-70% and 30-40%, respectively. Subsequent investigations by New Zealand authorities revealed a potential source of these liquids being a diverted legitimate industrial product. The health and psychoactive effects of NMP, along with GBL and NMP mixtures, are unknown. Health statistics in New Zealand have indicated increased harm from GBL use over the last few years.

Establishing likelihood ratios for evaluating opposing propositions concerning the activity causing methamphetamine contamination: Smoking or manufacture?

In New Zealand, concerns have been raised over the presence of methamphetamine contamination in households, especially when the activity causing the contamination is unknown. The cause of contamination is also a contentious issue in clandestine laboratory cases concerning charges in relation to "Use of Premises" (Section 12: Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, New Zealand). Regardless of the cause, other than scientific opinion, there is currently no analytical technique that can satisfactorily address the provenance of methamphetamine residues. For several years, approximate methamphetamine contamination levels have been collected from suspected clandestine laboratories in New Zealand, where methamphetamine is believed to have been manufactured. This study used this data and compared it to similar data from properties where the drug is suspected to have been used (smoked) to model likelihood ratios (LR). It is well documented that the LR forms the backbone to a Bayesian method of interpreting forensic evidence. As such, this data has the potential to underpin a novel Bayesian approach in the evaluation of clandestine laboratory evidence.

Identification and characterization of chemically masked derivatives of pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, methamphetamine, and MDMA.

The emergence of chemically masked illicit drugs represents a challenge to global initiatives that are working to prevent their manufacture and distribution. Targeted analytical techniques currently used by law enforcement to identify unknown materials rely on spectroscopic and spectrophotometric databases that do not currently include some of these compounds, making their identification challenging. This study aimed to update compound spectral libraries to aid in the rapid detection and identification of these masked drugs, as well as to provide insight into their synthetic procedures. Five commonly employed protecting groups, acetyl, p-tosyl, methoxycarbonyl, Fmoc, and t-Boc, were appended to pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, methamphetamine, and MDMA. Characterization was carried out using NMR, GC-MS, FTIR, high-resolution LC-MS/MS, and common screening color tests. Some of the methoxycarbonyl and t-Boc derivatives and all of the Fmoc derivatives showed partial or full thermal degradation or rearrangement during GC-MS analysis, while LC-MS/MS analysis did not always show characteristic fragmentation that would allow unambiguous assignment of the structure. Restricted rotation in some of the derivatives meant that NMR assignments could only be made using NMR spectra acquired at elevated temperature. Therefore, GC-MS and LC-MS/MS analyses serve complementary roles for these derivatives, with NMR providing confirmation of structure for the pure materials if necessary.

1H and 31P benchtop NMR of liquids and solids used in and/or produced during the manufacture of methamphetamine by the HI reduction of pseudoephedrine/ephedrine.

In this study, the use of benchtop NMR spectroscopy in the analysis of solids and liquids used and/or produced during the HI reduction of pseudoephedrine was evaluated. The study focused on identifying organic precursors and phosphorus containing compounds used in and/or produced during the manufacturing process. Samples taken from clandestine laboratories, where this synthesis process was suspected of occurring, were also analysed and evaluated. Benchtop NMR was able to distinguish between ephedrine, pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine as the free base and hydrochloride salt. This technique was also effective at identifying and distinguishing between phosphorus containing compounds used and/or produced during the manufacture of methamphetamine. Benchtop NMR was also determined to be effective at analysing samples from suspected clandestine laboratories.