Small intestinal incarceration caused by external herniation can be diagnosed clinically in cattle, but laparotomy is required to confirm internal incarceration.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings, treatment, and outcome of cattle with small intestinal incarceration (SII) through internal and external hernias. METHODS: The medical records of 85 cattle with SII admitted between January 1, 1987, and December 31, 2019, were retrospectively reviewed. The long-term outcome was determined 2 years after discharge. RESULTS: 85 cattle had herniation of the small intestine through congenital or acquired openings in mesentery or omentum (internal herniation; n = 60) or the abdominal wall (external herniation; 25). The most common findings were little or no feces in the rectum (77 of 85 [90.6%]), reduced or absent intestinal motility (76 of 85 [89.4%]), and hypocalcemia (36 of 44 [81.8%]). Thirteen (15.3%) cattle died or were euthanized without surgery. Of the remaining 72 (84.7%) cattle that underwent surgery, 42 survived the procedure. Overall, 52 of 85 cattle (61.2%; 95% CI, 50% to 72%) did not survive to hospital discharge and 33 (38.8%; 95% CI, 28% to 50%) were discharged alive. Of these, 11 (33.3%; 6 with and 5 without hernias closed completely) were still productive in their respective herds 2 years later. CONCLUSIONS: The diagnosis of an incarcerated external hernia is usually straightforward, whereas internal SII necessitates laparotomy or postmortem examination for a definitive diagnosis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Internal herniation should be part of the differential diagnosis in cattle with signs of ileus. Immediate surgical treatment is paramount in cattle with SII.

Torsion of the spiral colon in cattle- a retrospective analysis of 58 cases.

BACKGROUND: Torsion of the spiral colon (TSC) describes twisting of the spiral colon around its mesentery. The present study reviewed the medical records of 58 cows and heifers with TSC and described the findings, treatment and outcome. RESULTS: All cases had an abnormal general condition, and the main vital sign abnormalities were tachycardia (72.4%), tachypnoea (67.2%) and decreased rectal temperature (51.8%). Signs of colic were seen in 62.1% of the cows. The most common intestinal abnormalities were an empty or almost empty rectum (96.6%), reduced or absent rumen motility (93.2%), positive ballottement and/or percussion and simultaneous auscultation on the right side of the abdomen (87.9%), reduced or absent intestinal motility (84.5%) and dilatation of the large intestines (spiral colon and/or caecum, 70.7%) diagnosed by transrectal palpation. The main biochemical changes were hypermagnesaemia (70.8%), hypocalcaemia (70.8%), and acidosis (66.7%). Haemoconcentration was found in 63.8%. The main ultrasonographic findings were reduced to absent small intestinal motility (83.3%), dilated small intestines (69.6%) and ascites (66.7%). The spiral colon was dilated in 44.0% of the cows and the caecum in 24.0%. The actual site of torsion could not be visualised. Based on the clinical findings, TSC was diagnosed in 22.4% and caecal dilatation in 50.0% of the cows. A tentative diagnosis of small intestinal ileus was made in another 10.3% of the cows, and a definitive diagnosis of small intestinal ileus in 17.3%. Fifty-three cows underwent right flank laparotomy, and the TSC could be reduced in 26. Twenty-six of the 58 (44.8%) cows were discharged and 32 (55.2%) were euthanased before, during or after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Acute illness, a sparse amount of faeces in the rectum and dilated spiral colon and caecum are characteristic findings of TSC. The final diagnosis often relies on the surgical or postmortem findings. Cattle with TSC should be treated surgically without delay. The prognosis is guarded with a survival rate of 44.8%.

Small intestinal volvulus in 47 cows.

Objective: To describe the findings, treatment, and outcome of small intestinal volvulus (SIV) in 47 cows. Animals and procedure: Retrospective analysis of medical records. Comparison of the findings for 18 surviving and 29 non-surviving cows. Results: The most common abnormal vital signs were tachycardia (68.0%), tachypnea (59.6%), and decreased rectal temperature (51.1%). Signs of colic occurred in 66.0% of cows in the study. Rumen motility was reduced or absent in 93.6% of cows, and intestinal motility in 76.6%. Clinical signs on ballottement and/or percussion and simultaneous auscultation were positive on the right side in 78.7% of cows. Transrectal examination showed dilated small intestines in 48.9% of cows. The rectum contained little or no feces in 93.6% of cows. The principal laboratory abnormalities were hypocalcemia (74.1%), hypokalemia (73.8%), azotemia (62.8%), hypermagnesemia (61.6%), and hemoconcentration (60.0%). The principal ultrasonographic findings were dilated small intestines (87.1%) and reduced or absent small intestinal motility (85.2%). Forty-one of the 47 cows underwent right flank laparotomy and the SIV was reduced in 21 cows. When comparing the clinical and laboratory findings of 18 surviving and 29 non-surviving cows, the groups differed significantly with respect to severely abnormal general condition (16.7 versus 37.9%), rumen stasis (22.2 versus 79.3%), intestinal atony (16.7 versus 48.3%), serum urea concentration (6.5 versus 9.8 mmol/L), and serum magnesium concentration (0.98 versus 1.30 mmol/L). In summary, 38.3% of the cows were discharged and 61.7% were euthanized before, during, or after surgery. Conclusion and clinical relevance: An acute course of disease, little or no feces in the rectum, and dilated small intestines were characteristic of SIV in this study population.

Volvulus de l'intestin grêle chez 47 vaches. Objectif: Décrire les données, le traitement et les résultats du volvulus de l'intestin grêle (SIV) chez 47 vaches. Animaux et procédure: Analyse rétrospective des dossiers médicaux. Comparaison des résultats pour 18 vaches survivantes et 29 vaches non survivantes. Résultats: Les signes vitaux anormaux les plus courants étaient la tachycardie (68,0 %), la tachypnée (59,6 %) et la diminution de la température rectale (51,1 %). Des signes de coliques sont apparus chez 66,0 % des vaches étudiées. La motilité du rumen était réduite ou absente chez 93,6 % des vaches et la motilité intestinale chez 76,6 %. Les signes cliniques de ballottement et/ou percussion et auscultation simultanée étaient positifs du côté droit chez 78,7 % des vaches. L'examen transrectal a montré une dilatation de l'intestin grêle chez 48,9 % des vaches. Le rectum contenait peu ou pas de matières fécales chez 93,6 % des vaches. Les principales anomalies des analyses de laboratoire étaient l'hypocalcémie (74,1 %), l'hypokaliémie (73,8 %), l'azotémie (62,8 %), l'hypermagnésémie (61,6 %) et l'hémoconcentration (60,0 %). Les principaux résultats échographiques étaient une dilatation de l'intestin grêle (87,1 %) et une motilité intestinale réduite ou absente (85,2 %). Quarante et une des 47 vaches ont subi une laparotomie du flanc droit et le SIV a été corrigé chez 21 vaches. En comparant les résultats cliniques et biologiques de 18 vaches survivantes et de 29 vaches non survivantes, les groupes différaient significativement en ce qui concerne l'état général sévèrement anormal (16,7 contre 37,9 %), la stase du rumen (22,2 contre 79,3 %), l'atonie intestinale (16,7 contre 48,3 %), la concentration sérique d'urée (6,5 contre 9,8 mmol/L) et la concentration sérique de magnésium (0,98 contre 1,30 mmol/L). En résumé, 38,3 % des vaches ont reçu leur congé et 61,7 % ont été euthanasiées avant, pendant ou après l'intervention chirurgicale. Conclusion et pertinence clinique: Une évolution aiguë de la maladie, peu ou pas de selles dans le rectum et un intestin grêle dilaté étaient caractéristiques du SIV dans cette population étudiée.(Traduit par Dr Serge Messier).

Small intestinal strangulation in 60 cattle - clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings, treatment and outcome.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal strangulation is constriction of the intestine by a band of tissue, ligament or blood vessel causing partial or complete intestinal obstruction. This retrospective study describes the clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings, treatment and outcome of 60 cows with intestinal strangulation. RESULTS: The general condition was abnormal in all cows (60/60), 23.3% (14/60) had nonspecific signs of pain, 40.0% (24/60) had signs of colic and 48.3% (29/60) had signs of somatic (parietal) pain. The most common digestive tract abnormalities were, in decreasing frequency, reduced or absent intestinal motility (100%, 60/60), reduced or absent faecal output (98.3%, 59/60), reduced or absent rumen motility (93.4%, 56/60), dilated small intestines on transrectal palpation (63.3%, 38/60), positive ballottement and swinging auscultation (BSA) and/or percussion and simultaneous auscultation (PSA) on the right side of the abdomen (58.3%, 35/60) and at least one positive foreign body test, most commonly the back grip, in 33.9% (20/59) of the cows. Other common findings were reduced skin surface temperature (67.8%, 40/59), reduced skin turgor (51.7%, 31/60), prolonged capillary refill time (49.2%, 29/59), enophthalmus (48.3%, 29/60) and moderate to severe scleral injection (46.6%, 27/58). The most common laboratory findings were hypokalaemia (58.3%, 35/60), haemoconcentration (57.6%, 34/59), base excess (51.1%, 24/47), hyperproteinaemia (45.8%, 27/59), hyperbilirubinaemia (43.3%, 26/60), acidosis (42.6%, 20/47) and azotaemia (38.3%, 23/60). The principal ultrasonographic findings were subjectively reduced or absent small intestinal motility and dilated small intestines, but the strangulation could not be visualised by ultrasonography. With one exception, all cows underwent a right flank laparotomy to resolve the strangulation by transection or resection of the impinging tissue. Forty-nine (81.7%) cows were discharged and 11 (18.3%) were euthanized before, during or after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Without laparotomy, intestinal strangulation could be clinically (transrectally) diagnosed in only 10% of the cows. A laparotomy is therefore essential for the correct diagnosis. The prognosis is good with prompt surgical treatment.

Dilated small and large intestines combined with a severely abnormal demeanor are characteristic of mesenteric torsion in cattle.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical, laboratory, and ultrasonographic findings; treatment; and outcome of cattle with mesenteric torsion (MT). ANIMALS: 61 cattle with MT between November 1, 1986, and December 31, 2019. METHODS: Medical records were retrospectively reviewed. Results were compared for cattle that survived versus did not survive to hospital discharge. RESULTS: All cattle had abnormal demeanor. The most common clinical signs were tachycardia (80.3% [49/61]), tachypnea (65.0% [39/60]), and lower rectal temperature (59.3% [35/59]). Signs of colic occurred in 65.6% (40/61). The most common gastrointestinal findings were an empty or almost empty rectum (100% [59/59]), reduced or absent motility of the small intestines (96.6% [57/59]) or rumen (93.2% [55/59]), positive ballottement and/or percussion and simultaneous auscultation on the right side (91.7% [55/60]), and dilated small (49.2% [29/59]) and large intestines (spiral colon and/or cecum, 44.1% [26/59]) detected during transrectal examination. The most common laboratory findings were acidosis (82.6%, [38/46]) hypermagnesemia (74.5% [35/47]). Ultrasonographic findings included reduced or absent small intestinal motility (86.7% [26/30]) and dilated small intestines (83.8% [31/37]). The spiral colon was dilated in 32.4% (12/37) of the cattle. Eighty-two percent (50/61) of the cattle underwent right flank laparotomy and the MT could be reduced in 34.4% (21/61). Twenty-three percent (14/61) of the cattle survived to hospital discharge, and 77.0% (47/61) were euthanized before hospital discharge. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Dilated small and large intestines (spiral colon, cecum) combined with a severely abnormal demeanor and tachycardia are characteristic findings in cows with MT. Immediate surgical treatment is paramount.

A retrospective review of small intestinal intussusception in 126 cattle in Switzerland.

Background: Intussusception is a form of ileus of the intestines in which an oral intestinal segment slides into the adjacent aboral intestinal segment, causing obstruction of the bowel. Methods: We analysed the medical records of 126 cattle with intussusception of the small intestine. Results: Demeanour and appetite were abnormal in 123 cattle. Non-specific signs of pain occurred in 26.2%, signs of visceral pain in 46.8% and signs of parietal pain in 56.4%. Intestinal motility was decreased or absent in 93.7% of the cattle. The most common findings of transrectal palpation were rumen dilation (37.3%) and dilated small intestines (24.6%). In 96% of the cattle, the rectum was empty or contained little faeces. The principal laboratory findings were hypokalaemia (89.6%), hypocalcaemia (76.5%), base excess (72.9%), hypochloraemia (71.8%), azotaemia (62.1%) and haemoconcentration (61.1%). The main ultrasonographic findings were reduced or absent intestinal motility (98.2%) and dilated small intestines (96.0%). A diagnosis of ileus was made in 87.8% and a diagnosis of ileus attributable to intussusception was made in another 9.8%. Right-flank laparotomy was carried out in 114 cattle. Fifty-six (44.4%) cows were discharged. Conclusions: Clinical findings of intussusception in cattle are often non-specific. Ultrasonography may be required to diagnose ileus.

Left and right displaced abomasum and abomasal volvulus: comparison of clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings in 1982 dairy cows.

BACKGROUND: Although left and right displacement of the abomasum and abomasal volvulus are well-known disorders of cattle, a comparative evaluation of the clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings of these types of abomasal displacements has not been undertaken. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare these conditions in a large population of cows. The medical records of 1982 dairy cows with left displaced abomasum (LDA, n = 1341), right displaced absomasum (RDA, n = 338) and abomasal volvulus (AV, n = 303) were searched for the results of clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic evaluations. RESULTS: The main clinical findings were an abnormal demeanour in 48.2% of the cows, reduced rumen motility in 89.7% and decreased intestinal motility in 61.1%. Ballottement and simultaneous auscultation and percussion and simultaneous auscultation were positive on the left side in 96.9% of the cows with LDA and on the right in 98.5% of the cows with RDA and in 99.3% of the cows with AV. Ultrasonography was useful for diagnosing LDA in 97.9% of the cows and RDA/AV in 90.2% of the cows. The laboratory findings characteristic of abomasal reflux syndrome varied in severity; 83% of the cows had hypokalaemia, 67% had increased rumen chloride concentration, 67% had an increased base excess and 50% had haemoconcentration. Based on the clinical signs, a definitive diagnosis was made in 75.0% of the cows with LDA and in 22.5% of the cows with RDA/AV. Ultrasonography was required for a definitive diagnosis in another 22.0% of the cows with LDA and in 53.0% of the cows with RDA/AV. Laparotomy or postmortem examination was required for reliable differentiation of RDA and AV. CONCLUSIONS: LDA, RDA and AV differ with respect to the severity and the frequency of several abnormal clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings as well as the methods required for a diagnosis.

Sucking and drinking behaviour in preweaned dairy calves in the first five weeks of life.

BACKGROUND: Nursing and sucking are essential for adequate nourishment of preweaned calves and the relationship between sucking indices has not been studied. The goal of this study was to investigate the number of sucks per litre of milk and per minute of drinking and the amount of milk ingested per suck in healthy preweaned calves. Correlation coefficients were calculated for the relationships between these variables. Eighteen healthy calves were used from birth to 5 weeks of age, and five measurements were made at the end of weeks 1 to 5. The calves were randomly divided into three groups and offered milk twice daily in a bucket with a rubber nipple. The amount of milk offered per day was equal to 12% of body weight in group A and 16% of body weight in group B. Calves in group C were offered as much milk as they wanted during each feeding period. The duration of drinking was determined with a stopwatch, and the number of sucks was counted with a handheld tally counter. The variables drinking duration, total amount consumed and the number of sucks required were used to calculate the number of sucks/min, the number of sucks/L, the amount ingested per suck and drinking speed. RESULTS: The number of sucks/min ranged from 113 to 133 and increased significantly during the study period. The mean number of sucks/L decreased from 204 in week 1 to 141 in week 5 and drinking speed increased from 0.6 to 1.0 L/min. There were significant correlations between the number of sucks/L of milk and the amount of milk ingested per suck, drinking duration, total amount consumed and drinking speed. Drinking speed was positively correlated with the amount of milk ingested per suck and the total amount of milk consumed, and negatively correlated with drinking duration. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show that drinking variables of calves offered different amounts of milk vary little and significant changes occur during the same period with respect to the number of sucks/L of milk and the amount of milk ingested per suck. Several drinking variables are significantly correlated with other variables.

[Frequency and diagnostic reliability of laboratory variables in cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis and abomasal ulcers]. / Häufigkeit und diagnostische Zuverlässigkeit von Laborbefunden bei Kühen mit Reticuloperitonitis traumatica und Labmagengeschwüren.

OBJECTIVE: A number of laboratory abnormalities occurs in cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis (TRP) as well as in those with abomasal ulcers (U; classified as type 1 to 5). The goal of our study was to compare the frequency of individual laboratory variables of cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis and cows with abomasal ulcers and determine the diagnostic significance of individual laboratory variables. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The present study included 182 healthy control cows, 503 cows with TRP, 94 cows with U1, 145 cows with U2, 60 cows with U3, 87 cows with U4 and 14 cows with U5. Hematocrit, total leukocyte count, concentrations of total protein, fibrinogen, urea, potassium and chloride, base excess and rumen chloride concentration were analyzed. The frequency distributions of all variables for all groups of cows were compared and the diagnostic reliabilities (diagnostic sensitivities and specificities, predictive values, positive likelihood ratios [LR+]) were calculated. RESULTS: Values outside the reference interval occurred in 2 to 24 % of control cows (rumen chloride 2 %, urea 6 %, serum chloride 11 %, hematocrit 13 %, base excess 18 %, fibrinogen 20 %, total protein 21 %, total leukocyte count 22 % and potassium 24 %), which made differentiation of healthy and ill cows difficult. Therefore, the variables best suited for distinguishing healthy and affected cows were rumen chloride and blood urea concentration. This was also supported by an LR+ of 14 to 27 for rumen chloride > 30 mmol/l and 6 to 15 for blood urea > 6.5 mmol/l in cows with abomasal ulcers. Urea also displayed a high diagnostic specificity and was suited for differentiation of healthy and diseased cows. The urea concentration was > 8.5 mmol/l in only 0.5 % of controls, and the LR+ for a urea concentration > 8.5 mmol/l ranged from 11 in cows with TRP to 128 in cows with U2. Except for cows with TRP, azotemia was significantly more frequent in affected cows than in controls. Cows with U2 (70 %) had urea concentrations > 8.5 mmol/l significantly more frequently than cows of the other groups. Even though the groups of diseased cows differed significantly with respect to several variables, no variables were identified to reliably differentiate the various groups. CONCLUSION: Different disorders in cows cannot be differentiated based on single laboratory variables. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: For a definitive diagnosis the history, clinical findings and results of additional diagnostic techniques such as radiography of the reticulum, ultrasonography and abdominocentesis are required. In many cases, a definitive diagnosis can only be made via exploratory laparotomy and/or postmortem examination.

Clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings in 38 calves with type-4 abomasal ulcer.

BACKGROUND: Type-4 abomasal ulcers (U4) are perforated ulcers causing diffuse peritonitis. This retrospective study describes the clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings in 38 calves with U4. The medical records of 38 calves aged three days to 20 weeks with U4 were scrutinised. RESULTS: The most common clinical findings were poor general health (95%), reduced skin elasticity (95%), rumen atony (91%), abdominal guarding (76%) and positive percussion auscultation and/or swinging auscultation on the right side of the abdomen (75%). The most frequent laboratory findings were increased numbers of segmented neutrophils (87%), eosinopenia (87%), acidosis (84%), azotaemia (79%) and hyponatraemia (79%). The most frequent abdominal ultrasonographic findings were intestinal atony (68%), fluid (67%) and fibrin deposits (58%) in the abdomen. Thirty-five calves were euthanased and three calves died spontaneously. All calves underwent pathological examination. Diffuse peritonitis caused by a transmural abomasal ulcer was the principal diagnosis in all calves. CONCLUSIONS: Perforated abomasal ulcers cause severe illness, and a thorough clinical examination combined with ultrasonographic abdominal examination should lead to a tentative diagnosis.

Haematological findings in 158 cows with acute toxic mastitis with a focus on the leukogram.

BACKGROUND: In cows with acute toxic mastitis (ATM), the leukogram aids in the assessment of the severity of disease. The goal of our study was to compare the leukogram of 158 cows with ATM (cases) and 168 clinically healthy cows (controls). We hypothesised that the leukograms of surviving and non-surviving cows differ and that there are variables of the leukogram with sufficient prognostic potential to be used in the decision to treat or not to treat a cow with ATM. The cows were examined clinically and underwent haematological and biochemical examination of blood and bacteriological culture of milk samples. RESULTS: All cows with ATM had a poor appetite or anorexia, and 34 cows (21.5%) were recumbent. A single quarter was affected in 119 cows (75.3%), two quarters in 37 cows (23.4%) and three quarters in two cows (1.3%). Bacteriological culture showed Gram-negative pathogens in 100 cows (63.3%), Gram-positive in 15 (9.5%) and yeast in 4 (2.5%). The median total leukocyte count of cases was 4300 cells/µL (interquartile range = 2300-8200/µL), which was significantly lower than 8000 cells/µL (6525-9300/µL) in controls. Except for band neutrophils and metamyelocytes, the counts of all components of the leukogram were lower in cases compared with controls. Significantly more cows with ATM had leukopenia (60.1 vs. 4.1%) or leukocytosis (10.1 vs. 3.0%) than controls. Diseased cows had significantly lower segmented neutrophil counts than controls (860 vs. 2598 cells/µL), and 69.5 and 17.3%, respectively, had counts below the reference interval. Cases had increased band (77.3%) and metamyelocyte (25.0%) counts compared with controls (0.6 and 0%, respectively). In diseased cows, eosinopenia occurred in 66.4% (controls, 1.8%), monocytopenia in 40.6% (4.2%) and lymphopenia in 60.2% (1.8%). Twenty-one diseased cows (16.4%) had a regenerative and 57 (44.5%) had a degenerative left shift. The median neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio was 0.97 in diseased cows and 0.63 in controls. Toxic changes in neutrophils including cytoplasmic basophilia and vacuolisation were seen in 101 (91.8%) of 110 blood smears of diseased cows. The leukogram of the surviving and non-surviving cows did not differ significantly, and the hypothesis was rejected. CONCLUSIONS: ATM results in severe changes in the leukogram particularly leukopenia, lymphopenia, and degenerative left shift. The hypothesis that the leukograms of surviving and non-surviving cows differ was rejected. The leukogram has not sufficient prognostic potential to be used in the decision to treat or not to treat a cow with ATM.

Diagnostic reliability of clinical signs in cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis and abomasal ulcers.

BACKGROUND: Clinical signs of traumatic reticuloperitonitis and abomasal ulcer are often similar making the disorders difficult to differentiate. The goal of our study was to compare the frequency of individual clinical signs of cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis and cows with abomasal ulcers and determine their diagnostic significance. The frequency of the findings "rectal temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, demeanour, signs of colic, arched back, abdominal guarding, bruxism, scleral vessels, rumen motility, foreign body tests, percussion auscultation, swinging auscultation and faecal colour" of cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis (TRP, n = 503) and cows with type 1 (U1, n = 94), type 2 (U2, n = 145), type 3 (U3, n = 60), type 4 (U4, n = 87) and type 5 (U5, n = 14) abomasal ulcer were compared, and the reliability indices "diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, positive and negative predictive values and positive likelihood ratio" were calculated. A total of 182 healthy cows served as controls (control group). RESULTS: None of the cows in the control group had colic, rumen atony or melena, 99% had no abnormalities in demeanor and appetite and did not have a rectal temperature of ≤38.6 or >  40.0 °C, a heart rate >  100 bpm or a respiratory rate >  55 breaths per min, and 95% did not have an arched back or bruxism. The control group was therefore ideal for comparative purposes. Many signs such as mild increase in rectal temperature, scleral congestion and positive foreign body test were non-diagnostic because they occurred in healthy as well as in ill cows. Likewise, differentiation of cows with TRP and abomasal ulcer was not possible based on single clinical variables; a detailed history and a comprehensive assessment of all clinical findings were required for this. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the present study serve as a guide for the veterinarian in the differentiation of cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis and abomasal ulcer.

Ultrasonographic documentation of type-3 abomasal ulcer in a cow with left displacement of the abomasum.

BACKGROUND: Ultrasonographic documentation of perforated abomasal ulcer has not been published till now. This report describes the clinical, ultrasonographic and postmortem findings in a Jersey cow with type-3 abomasal ulcer and left displacement of the abomasum (LDA). CASE REPORT: The main clinical findings were abnormal demeanour, rumen atony and tympany, positive foreign body tests, positive auscultation and simultaneous ballottement on the left side, abdominal guarding and loss of negative pressure in the abdominal cavity. The tentative diagnosis was peritonitis and LDA. Abdominal ultrasonography produced images typical of LDA, and in one location between the abdominal wall and abomasum there was a layer of fibrin, a fibrin clot, a break in the abomasal contour, suggestive of a perforated ulcer, and partial obstruction of this gap with fibrin. The diagnosis of perforated abomasal ulcer with subsequent peritonitis was confirmed during postmortem examination. CONCLUSIONS: The examination of this case shows that under certain circumstances, ultrasonographic imaging of a perforated abomasal ulcer in a cow is possible. Antemortem diagnosis of type-3 abomasal ulcer is preferable to relying on exploratory laparotomy and/or post-mortem examination.

Aetiology, diagnosis, treatment and outcome of traumatic reticuloperitonitis in cattle.

Traumatic reticuloperitonitis (TRP) in cattle is caused by ingested nails, pieces of wire, and other nonmetallic materials that injure the reticular wall. Clinical signs of acute TRP may include anorexia, fever, drop in milk production, rumen atony and tympany, abdominal pain, an arched back, a tucked up and "guarded" abdomen and spontaneous grunting, but may be obscure or absent in chronic cases. Haematological findings alone are not diagnostic, but total and differential white blood cell counts, the concentration of fibrinogen and total protein and the glutaraldehyde coagulation time may indicate inflammation associated with TRP. The clinical examination is aimed at eliciting a grunt in response to foreign body tests such as back grip, pole test or pain percussion. Inflammatory changes of the reticulum and adjacent organs and impairment of reticular motility are characteristic features of TRP and can be detected via ultrasonography. Radiography is the technique of choice for the visualisation of metallic foreign bodies and for monitoring the efficacy of a magnet. Treatment may be conservative or surgical, but in most cases initial treatment is conservative with administration of a magnet and antibiotics. If the cow fails to respond to medical treatment, surgical treatment is the next option other than euthanasia and ideally is carried out after imaging of the reticulum. If this is not feasible, a second magnet and continuation of antibiotic treatment is recommended.

Type-5 abomasal ulcer and omental bursitis in 14 cows.

BACKGROUND: Type-5 abomasal ulcer (U5) is a perforated ulcer that causes peritonitis limited to the omental bursa. This retrospective study describes the clinical and laboratory findings in 14 cattle with omental bursitis due to U5. The medical records of 14 cows aged 2.5 to 14.6 years (5.4 ± 3.1 years) with U5 were scrutinised. RESULTS: The most common clinical findings were partial or complete anorexia (100%), abdominal guarding (100%), obtunded demeanour (93%), congested scleral vessels (79%), tachypnoea (71%), rumen atony (64%), diminished faecal output (64%), reduced skin surface temperature (64%) and fever (46%). Four (29%) cows had between one and four concomitant diseases. The most common abnormal laboratory findings were hypokalemia (71%), haemoconcentration (57%), metabolic acidosis (57%) and azotaemia (43%). All cows were euthanased; five immediately after the initial examination, one after exploratory laparotomy and eight after unsuccessful treatment. A diagnosis of U5 was made in all cows during postmortem examination. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for improvement of the antemortem diagnosis of U5 because reliable differentiation of this disease from other conditions with a similar clinical presentation is currently not feasible.

Clinical and laboratory findings, treatment and outcome in 145 cows with type-2 abomasal ulcer.

This study involved 145 cows with type-2 abomasal ulcer. The most common clinical signs were, in decreasing order of frequency, depressed demeanour (100%), partial or complete anorexia (93%), rumen atony (91%), tachycardia (90%), dark or black manure (80%), prolonged capillary refill time (71%), pale mucous membranes (69%) and tachypnoea (62%). The most common abnormal laboratory findings were azotaemia (89%), low haematocrit (82%), hypokalaemia (81%), hypoproteinaemia (74%) and metabolic acidosis (61%). Ten cows were euthanased immediately after, or died during, the initial examination, and treatment was started (day 0) in 135 cows. Treatment included blood transfusion, sodium chloride/glucose solution, calcium borogluconate, vitamin C and metamizole. Fourteen cows also underwent right-flank laparotomy because of displaced abomasum (n = 7) or to rule out other causes of gastrointestinal haemorrhage (n = 7). The mean heart rate decreased significantly from 108 bpm on day 0 to 88 bpm on day 3. The haematocrit decreased significantly in cows that did not receive blood and increased significantly in the transfused cows during this period. The plasma protein concentration also increased significantly in transfused cows. Ninety-one (67%) of the 135 treated cows recovered and were discharged after a mean hospitalisation period of nine days, and 44 cows (33%) failed to respond to treatment and were euthanased or died. Aggressive treatment, which should include blood transfusion when indicated, is warranted in valuable cows because >50% can be expected to return to full production in the long term.

Clinical, laboratory and ultrasonographic findings in 87 cows with type-4 abomasal ulcer.

BACKGROUND: This study evaluated the clinical, laboratory, ultrasonographic and pathological findings in 87 cows aged 2 to 10 years (4.5 ± 1.5 years) with type-4 abomasal ulcer. RESULTS: The most common clinical findings were in decreasing order compromised health status accompanied by partial or complete anorexia (100%), abdominal guarding (81%), congested scleral vessels (77%), ruminal atony (73%), tachycardia (68%), tachypnoea (65%), positive foreign body tests (58%), decreased skin surface temperature (53%), fever (49%), reduction in negative intraabdominal pressure assessed transrectally (39%), poorly subdivided plant fragments in faeces (35%) and arched back (28%). The principal haematological abnormalities were hypokalaemia (72%), haemoconcentration (69%), azotaemia (56%), metabolic acidosis (49%), hyperfibrinogenaemia (45%), leukopenia (35%) and hypoproteinaemia (29%). Other abnormalities were aciduria (56%), haematuria (44%), increased chloride concentration in rumen fluid (34%) and abnormal peritoneal fluid (98%). Of 75 examined cows, 65 (87%) had ultrasonographic evidence of local or generalised peritonitis. On postmortem examination all cows had a type-4 abomasal ulcer and generalised peritonitis. In addition, 36 cows had type-1 ulcers, 6 had type-2 ulcers and one cow had a type-3 ulcer. DISCUSSION: The clinical signs in cows with type-4 abomasal ulcer are associated with generalised peritonitis. An increased haematocrit, indicating shock-induced haemoconcentration is characteristic in contrast to cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis. Ultrasonography is useful for visualising and assessing generalised peritonitis. CONCLUSIONS: The diagnosis of type-4 abomasal ulcer based on clinical signs alone is difficult and therefore requires additional diagnostic procedures including the determination of the haematocrit and plasma protein concentration, abdominal ultrasonography and analysis of peritoneal fluid. In most cases, these steps lead to a correct diagnosis and allow timely euthanasia of the cow to prevent further suffering and unnecessary treatment costs. METHODS: The cows underwent a clinical, laboratory, ultrasonographic and postmortem examination.

Border disease in cattle.

Within the family Flaviviridae, viruses within the genus Pestivirus, such as Border disease virus (BDV) of sheep, can cause great economic losses in farm animals. Originally, the taxonomic classification of pestiviruses was based on the host species they were isolated from, but today, it is known that many pestiviruses exhibit a broad species tropism. This review provides an overview of BDV infection in cattle. The clinical, hematological and pathological-anatomical findings in bovines that were transiently or persistently infected with BDV largely resemble those in cattle infected with the closely related pestivirus bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV). Accordingly, the diagnosis of BDV infection can be challenging, as it must be differentiated from various pestiviruses in cattle. The latter is very relevant in countries with control programs to eradicate BVDV in Bovidae, as in most circumstances, pestivirus infections in sheep, which act as reservoir for BDV, are not included in the eradication scheme. Interspecies transmission of BDV between sheep and cattle occurs regularly, but BDV in cattle appears to be of minor general importance. Nevertheless, BDV outbreaks at farm or local level can be very costly.

Phenolic plant extracts are additive in their effects against in vitro ruminal methane and ammonia formation.

OBJECTIVE: The methane mitigating potential of various plant-based polyphenol sources is known, but effects of combinations have rarely been tested. The aim of the present study was to determine whether binary and 3-way combinations of such phenol sources affect ruminal fermentation less, similar or more intensively than separate applications. METHODS: The extracts used were from Acacia mearnsii bark (acacia), Vitis vinifera (grape) seed, Camellia sinensis leaves (green tea), Uncaria gambir leaves (gambier), Vaccinium macrocarpon berries (cranberry), Fagopyrum esculentum seed (buckwheat), and Ginkgo biloba leaves (ginkgo). All extracts were tested using the Hohenheim gas test. This was done alone at 5% of dry matter (DM). Acacia was also combined with all other single extracts at 5% of DM each, and with two other phenol sources (all possible combinations) at 2.5%+2.5% of DM. RESULTS: Methane formation was reduced by 7% to 9% by acacia, grape seed and green tea and, in addition, by most extract combinations with acacia. Grape seed and green tea alone and in combination with acacia also reduced methane proportion of total gas to the same degree. The extracts of buckwheat and gingko were poor in phenols and promoted ruminal fermentation. All treatments except green tea alone lowered ammonia concentration by up to 23%, and the binary combinations were more effective as acacia alone. With three extracts, linear effects were found with total gas and methane formation, while with ammonia and other traits linear effects were rare. CONCLUSION: The study identified methane and ammonia mitigating potential of various phenolic plant extracts and showed a number of additive and some non-linear effects of combinations of extracts. Further studies, especially in live animals, should concentrate on combinations of extracts from grape seed, green tea leaves Land acacia bark and determine the ideal dosages of such combinations for the purpose of methane mitigation.

Hair cortisol concentration in veal calves reared under two different welfare production labels.

The hypothesis of this study was that veal calves reared under enhanced welfare standards undergo less stress than calves raised in a conventionally system that meets the minimal standards of the Swiss animal welfare legislation, and that this difference is reflected by differences in hair cortisol concentrations and the size, weight and total cortisol concentration of the adrenal glands. A total of 100 veal calves reared under two different animal welfare production labels were used; the labels differed with respect to stocking density and access to an outdoor area and pasture. The production labels included Quality Management and Naturafarm. Hair samples for cortisol measurement were collected from all calves and the adrenal glands were obtained at slaughter. The left adrenal gland was used for cortisol measurement and the right gland was used for histological and morphometric measurements. The median hair cortisol concentrations of the two production groups were 2.4 and 2.3 pg/mg hair, which did not differ significantly. Likewise, the median cortisol concentration of the adrenal cortex (1.7 and 1.6 µg/g), the total adrenal cortisol content (4.8 and 4.7 µg), the weights of the cortex (3.2 and 3.1 g) and medulla (1.7 and 1.7 g) and the thickness of the zona fasciculata (1430 and 1532 µm) did not differ significantly between groups. Thus, it appears that the calves of the two production labels did not suffer obvious stress. This finding notwithstanding, all veal calves deserve to be reared under optimised animal-appropriate welfare conditions.