Assessing Almond and Peanut Allergens Using Commercially Available Immunoanalytical Kits and LC-MS/MS: A Case Study.

With an ever-increasing allergic population and an emerging market for allergen-free foods, accurate detection of allergens in foods has never been more important. Although ELISA-based methods are the most widely used for detection of allergens in food, there is a need for the development of orthogonal approaches. A commercial ELISA detected a relatively high concentration of peanut and almond in an allergen-free product. However, another commercial ELISA declared a low peanut concentration and was negative for almond. Further testing using a commercial almond lateral-flow device confirmed the results from the second ELISA kit and demonstrated that the positive detection of almond was due to cross-reactivity. An MS method was used for final confirmation that the reported results were negative for both almond and peanut.

Stakeholders' Guidance Document for Consumer Analytical Devices with a Focus on Gluten and Food Allergens.

Until recently, analytical tests for food were performed primarily in laboratories, but technical developments now enable consumers to use devices to test their food at home or when dining out. Current consumer devices for food can determine nutritional values, freshness, and, most recently, the presence of food allergens and substances that cause food intolerances. The demand for such products is driven by an increase in the incidence of food allergies, as well as consumer desire for more information about what is in their food. The number and complexity of food matrixes creates an important need for properly validated testing devices with comprehensive user instructions (definitions of technical terms can be found in ISO 5725-1:1994 and the International Vocabulary of Metrology). This is especially important with food allergen determinations that can have life-threatening consequences. Stakeholders-including food regulators, food producers, and food testing kit and equipment manufacturers, as well as representatives from consumer advocacy groups-have worked to outline voluntary guidelines for consumer food allergen- and gluten-testing devices. These guidelines cover areas such as kit validation, user sampling instructions, kit performance, and interpretation of results. The recommendations are based on (1) current known technologies, (2) analytical expertise, and (3) standardized AOAC INTERNATIONAL allergen community guidance and best practices on the analysis of food allergens and gluten. The present guidance document is the first in a series of papers intended to provide general guidelines applicable to consumer devices for all food analytes. Future publications will give specific guidance and validation protocols for devices designed to detect individual allergens and gluten, as statistical analysis and review of any validation data, preferably from an independent third party, are necessary to establish a device's fitness-for-purpose. Following the recommendations of these guidance documents will help ensure that consumers are equipped with sufficient information to make an informed decision based on an analytical result from a consumer device. However, the present guidance document emphasizes that consumer devices should not be used in isolation to make a determination as to whether a food is safe to eat. As advances are made in science and technology, these recommendations will be reevaluated and revised as appropriate.

A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for the rapid detection of Enterococcus spp. in water.

Faecal pollution of water and the resulting potential presence of human enteric pathogens is a predominant threat to public health. Microbiological water quality can be assessed by the detection of standard faecal indicator bacteria (SFIB) such as E. coli or certain Enterococcus species. In recent years, isothermal amplification methods have become a useful alternative to polymerase chain reaction (PCR), allowing molecular diagnostics with simple or no instrumentation. In this study, a novel screening method for the molecular detection of Enterococcus spp. by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is described. A set of six specific LAMP primers was designed to amplify a diagnostic fragment of the Enterococcus 23S rRNA gene, which is present in several enterococcal species targeted by quantitative PCR (qPCR), which is the standard technique recommended by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Sensitivity and specificity tests were performed using a set of 30 Enterococcus and non-target bacterial reference strains. It is shown that LAMP is equally sensitive and even more specific than the qPCR assay. A dilution series of Enterococcus faecalis DNA revealed that the LAMP method can reliably detect 130 DNA target copies per reaction within 45 min. Additionally, enterococci isolated from Austrian surface waterbodies, as well as a set of DNA extracts from environmental waters, were tested. Contingency analysis demonstrated a highly significant correlation between the results of the developed LAMP assay and the reference qPCR method. Furthermore, a simple staining procedure with a fluorescence dye demonstrated the identification of amplified products by eye. In conclusion, this method is an important component for the efficient screening and testing of water samples in low-resource settings lacking sophisticated laboratory equipment and highly trained personnel, requiring only a simple heating block.

A Complementary Isothermal Amplification Method to the U.S. EPA Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction Approach for the Detection of Enterococci in Environmental Waters.

We report a novel molecular assay, based on helicase-dependent amplification (HDA), for the detection of enterococci as markers for fecal pollution in water. This isothermal assay targets the same Enterococcus 23S rRNA gene region as the existing quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Methods 1611 and 1609 but can be entirely performed on a simple heating block. The developed Enterococcus HDA assay successfully discriminated 15 enterococcal from 15 non-enterococcal reference strains and reliably detected 48 environmental isolates of enterococci. The limit of detection was 25 target copies per reaction, only 3 times higher than that of qPCR. The applicability of the assay was tested on 30 environmental water sample DNA extracts, simulating a gradient of fecal pollution. Despite the isothermal nature of the reaction, the HDA results were consistent with those of the qPCR reference. Given this performance, we conclude that the developed Enterococcus HDA assay has great potential as a qualitative molecular screening method for resource-limited settings when combined with compatible up- and downstream processes. This amplification strategy can pave the way for developing a new generation of rapid, low-cost, and field-deployable molecular diagnostic tools for water quality monitoring.

Direct extraction of genomic DNA from maize with aqueous ionic liquid buffer systems for applications in genetically modified organisms analysis.

To date, the extraction of genomic DNA is considered a bottleneck in the process of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) detection. Conventional DNA isolation methods are associated with long extraction times and multiple pipetting and centrifugation steps, which makes the entire procedure not only tedious and complicated but also prone to sample cross-contamination. In recent times, ionic liquids have emerged as innovative solvents for biomass processing, due to their outstanding properties for dissolution of biomass and biopolymers. In this study, a novel, easily applicable, and time-efficient method for the direct extraction of genomic DNA from biomass based on aqueous-ionic liquid solutions was developed. The straightforward protocol relies on extraction of maize in a 10 % solution of ionic liquids in aqueous phosphate buffer for 5 min at room temperature, followed by a denaturation step at 95 °C for 10 min and a simple filtration to remove residual biopolymers. A set of 22 ionic liquids was tested in a buffer system and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium dimethylphosphate, as well as the environmentally benign choline formate, were identified as ideal candidates. With this strategy, the quality of the genomic DNA extracted was significantly improved and the extraction protocol was notably simplified compared with a well-established method.

Similar is not the same: differences in the function of the (hemi-)cellulolytic regulator XlnR (Xlr1/Xyr1) in filamentous fungi.

The transcriptional activator XlnR (Xlr1/Xyr1) is a major regulator in fungal xylan and cellulose degradation as well as in the utilization of d-xylose via the pentose catabolic pathway. XlnR homologs are commonly found in filamentous ascomycetes and often assumed to have the same function in different fungi. However, a comparison of the saprobe Aspergillus niger and the plant pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae showed different phenotypes for deletion strains of XlnR. In this study wild type and xlnR/xlr1/xyr1 mutants of five fungi were compared: Fusarium graminearum, M. oryzae, Trichoderma reesei, A. niger and Aspergillus nidulans. Growth profiling on relevant substrates and a detailed analysis of the secretome as well as extracellular enzyme activities demonstrated a common role of this regulator in activating genes encoding the main xylanolytic enzymes. However, large differences were found in the set of genes that is controlled by XlnR in the different species, resulting in the production of different extracellular enzyme spectra by these fungi. This comparison emphasizes the functional diversity of a fine-tuned (hemi-)cellulolytic regulatory system in filamentous fungi, which might be related to the adaptation of fungi to their specific biotopes. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD001190.

Detection of the food allergen celery via loop-mediated isothermal amplification technique.

Since 2005, celery and celery products have to be labeled according to Directive 2003/89/EC due to their allergenic potential. In order to provide a DNA-based, rapid and simple detection method suitable for high-throughput analysis, a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for the detection of celery (Apium graveolens) was developed. The assay was tested for specificity for celery since closely related species also hold food relevance. The limit of detection (LOD) for spiked food samples was found to be as low as 7.8 mg of dry celery powder per kilogram. An evaluation of different amplification and detection platforms was performed to show reliable detection independent from the instrument used for amplification (thermal cycler or heating block) and detection mechanisms (real-time fluorescence detection, agarose gel electrophoresis or nucleic acid staining). The analysis of 10 commercial food samples representing diverse and complex food matrices, and a false-negative rate of 0% for approximately 24 target copies or 0.08 ng celery DNA for three selected food matrices show that LAMP has the potential to be used as an alternative strategy for the detection of allergenic celery. The performance of the developed LAMP assay turned out to be equal or superior to the best available PCR assay for the detection of celery in food products.

Detection of the 35S promoter in transgenic maize via various isothermal amplification techniques: a practical approach.

In 2003 the European Commission introduced a 0.9% threshold for food and feed products containing genetically modified organism (GMO)-derived components. For commodities containing GMO contents higher than this threshold, labelling is mandatory. To provide a DNA-based rapid and simple detection method suitable for high-throughput screening of GMOs, several isothermal amplification approaches for the 35S promoter were tested: strand displacement amplification, nicking-enzyme amplification reaction, rolling circle amplification, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and helicase-dependent amplification (HDA). The assays developed were tested for specificity in order to distinguish between samples containing genetically modified (GM) maize and non-GM maize. For those assays capable of this discrimination, tests were performed to determine the lower limit of detection. A false-negative rate was determined to rule out whether GMO-positive samples were incorrectly classified as GMO-negative. A robustness test was performed to show reliable detection independent from the instrument used for amplification. The analysis of three GM maize lines showed that only LAMP and HDA were able to differentiate between the GMOs MON810, NK603, and Bt11 and non-GM maize. Furthermore, with the HDA assay it was possible to realize a detection limit as low as 0.5%. A false-negative rate of only 5% for 1% GM maize for all three maize lines shows that HDA has the potential to be used as an alternative strategy for the detection of transgenic maize. All results obtained with the LAMP and HDA assays were compared with the results obtained with a previously reported real-time PCR assay for the 35S promoter in transgenic maize. This study presents two new screening assays for detection of the 35S promoter in transgenic maize by applying the isothermal amplification approaches HDA and LAMP.

The seven-transmembrane receptor Gpr1 governs processes relevant for the antagonistic interaction of Trichoderma atroviride with its host.

Mycoparasitic Trichoderma species are applied as biocontrol agents in agriculture to guard plants against fungal diseases. During mycoparasitism, Trichoderma directly interacts with phytopathogenic fungi, preceded by a specific recognition of the host and resulting in its disarming and killing. In various fungal pathogens, including mycoparasites, signalling via heterotrimeric G proteins plays a major role in regulating pathogenicity-related functions. However, the corresponding receptors involved in the recognition of host-derived signals are largely unknown. Functional characterization of Trichoderma atroviride Gpr1 revealed a prominent role of this seven-transmembrane protein of the cAMP-receptor-like family of fungal G-protein-coupled receptors in the antagonistic interaction with the host fungus and governing of mycoparasitism-related processes. Silencing of gpr1 led to an avirulent phenotype accompanied by an inability to attach to host hyphae. Furthermore, gpr1-silenced transformants were unable to respond to the presence of living host fungi with the expression of chitinase- and protease-encoding genes. Addition of exogenous cAMP was able to restore host attachment in gpr1-silenced transformants but could not restore mycoparasitic overgrowth. A search for downstream targets of the signalling pathway(s) involving Gpr1 resulted in the isolation of genes encoding e.g. a member of the cyclin-like superfamily and a small secreted cysteine-rich protein. Although silencing of gpr1 caused defects similar to those of mutants lacking the Tga3 Gα protein, no direct interaction between Gpr1 and Tga3 was observed in a split-ubiquitin two-hybrid assay.

Elevated activity of dolichyl phosphate mannose synthase enhances biocontrol abilities of Trichoderma atroviride.

Antagonism of Trichoderma spp. against phytopathogenic fungi is widely exploited for biocontrol of plant diseases. A crucial role in the biocontrol mechanism is attributed to cell-wall-degrading enzymes secreted by Trichoderma spp. Therefore, more efficient production and secretion of the enzymes should elevate the biocontrol abilities of Trichoderma spp. Because the majority of secretory hydrolases are glycoproteins, it has been postulated that the posttranslational modification of these proteins could constitute a bottleneck in their production and secretion. Our previous study showed that improvement of O-glycosylation elevated protein secretion by Trichoderma reesei. In this study, we enhanced the biocontrol abilities of T. atroviride P1 against plant pathogens by overexpressing the Saccharomyces cerevisiae DPM1 gene coding for dolichyl phosphate mannose (DPM) synthase, a key enzyme in the O-glycosylation pathway. The transformants we obtained showed doubled DPM synthase activity and, at the same time, significantly elevated cellulolytic activity. They also revealed an improved antifungal activity against the plant pathogen Pythium ultimum.

Transformation system for Hypocrea jecorina (Trichoderma reesei) that favors homologous integration and employs reusable bidirectionally selectable markers.

Hypocrea jecorina is an industrially important filamentous fungus due to its effective production of hydrolytic enzymes. It has received increasing interest because of its ability to convert lignocellulosic biomass to monomeric sugars, which can be converted into biofuels or platform chemicals. Genetic engineering of strains is a highly important means of meeting the requirements of tailor-made applications. Therefore, we report the development of a transformation system that allows highly efficient gene targeting by using a tmus53 (human LIG4 homolog) deletion strain. Moreover, it permits the unlimited reuse of the same marker by employing a Cre/loxP-based excision system. Both marker insertion and marker excision can be positively selected for by combining resistance to hygromycin B and loss of sensitivity to fluoroacetamide. Finally, the marker pyr4, also positively selectable for insertion and loss, can be used to remove the cre gene.

A reference-gene-based quantitative PCR method as a tool to determine Fusarium resistance in wheat.

In recent years, plant breeders made great progress in breeding Fusarium-tolerant wheat lines. However, total resistance to this genus of plant pathogenic fungi has not yet been achieved as the resistance genes are located on several distinct genetic regions. Visual scoring of disease symptoms in combination with the analysis of mycotoxins is commonly applied to assess the tolerance of new lines. Both approaches are indirect methods and do not mandatorily determine the accumulated fungal biomass. Quantitative PCR is a useful tool to assess fungal biomass based on the abundance of organism-specific DNA. The aim of this study was the development of a quantitative PCR assay for trichothecene-producing Fusarium species and to adapt this method for resistance assessment of wheat lines artificially infected with Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum. Several DNA-extraction methods for wheat samples were evaluated and optimized for downstream real-time PCR analysis and furthermore, a new reference-gene-based approach for more accurate quantification of Fusarium biomass in cereals is presented. The co-determination of a plant gene was used to compensate for unequal DNA-extraction efficiencies.

Trichoderma G protein-coupled receptors: functional characterisation of a cAMP receptor-like protein from Trichoderma atroviride.

Galpha subunits act to regulate vegetative growth, conidiation, and the mycoparasitic response in Trichoderma atroviride. To extend our knowledge on G protein signalling, we analysed G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). As the genome sequence of T. atroviride is not publicly available yet, we carried out an in silico exploration of the genome database of the close relative T. reesei. Twenty genes encoding putative GPCRs distributed over eight classes and additional 35 proteins similar to the Magnaporthe grisea PTH11 receptor were identified. Subsequently, four T. atroviride GPCR-encoding genes were isolated and affiliated to the cAMP receptor-like family by phylogenetic and topological analyses. All four genes showed lowest expression on glycerol and highest mRNA levels upon carbon starvation. Transcription of gpr3 and gpr4 responded to exogenously added cAMP and the shift from liquid to solid media. gpr3 mRNA levels also responded to the presence of fungal hyphae or cellulose membranes. Further characterisation of mutants bearing a gpr1-silencing construct revealed that Gpr1 is essential for vegetative growth, conidiation and conidial germination. Four genes encoding the first GPCRs described in Trichoderma were isolated and their expression characterized. At least one of these GPCRs is important for several cellular processes, supporting the fundamental role of G protein signalling in this fungus.

Xyr1 regulates xylanase but not cellulase formation in the head blight fungus Fusarium graminearum.

Fusarium graminearum is a plant pathogen that causes severe economical losses by infecting numerous agriculturally important plants and until now most culture plants have only low levels of Fusarium resistance. The plant cell wall can be assumed as the first target that has to be overcome by plant pathogens. Therefore pathogenic organisms are known to produce a complex cocktail of plant cell wall lytic enzymes. Xylanases are besides cellulases the most prominent enzymes secreted by Fusarium during growth on plant cell walls. We identified a putative regulator of xylanase production with high similarity to the Aspergillus niger XlnR and the Trichoderma reesei Xyr1 proteins. Disruptant strains of F. graminearum were heavily impaired in xylose utilization and xylanase production on wheat cell walls. In contrast to other filamentous fungi the lack of this transcriptional activator had no effect on the induction of cellulases.

Signaling via the Trichoderma atroviride mitogen-activated protein kinase Tmk 1 differentially affects mycoparasitism and plant protection.

Trichoderma atroviride is a mycoparasite of a number of plant pathogenic fungi thereby employing morphological changes and secretion of cell wall degrading enzymes and antibiotics. The function of the tmk 1 gene encoding a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) during fungal growth, mycoparasitic interaction, and biocontrol was examined in T. atroviride. Deltatmk 1 mutants exhibited altered radial growth and conidiation, and displayed de-regulated infection structure formation in the absence of a host-derived signal. In confrontation assays, tmk 1 deletion caused reduced mycoparasitic activity although attachment to Rhizoctonia solani and Botrytis cinerea hyphae was comparable to the parental strain. Under chitinase-inducing conditions, nag 1 and ech 42 transcript levels and extracellular chitinase activities were elevated in a Deltatmk 1 mutant, whereas upon direct confrontation with R. solani or B. cinerea a host-specific regulation of ech 42 transcription was found and nag 1 gene transcription was no more inducible over an elevated basal level. Deltatmk 1 mutants exhibited higher antifungal activity caused by low molecular weight substances, which was reflected by an over-production of 6-pentyl-alpha-pyrone and peptaibol antibiotics. In biocontrol assays, a Deltatmk 1 mutant displayed a higher ability to protect bean plants against R. solani.

Improvement of the fungal biocontrol agent Trichoderma atroviride to enhance both antagonism and induction of plant systemic disease resistance.

Biocontrol agents generally do not perform well enough under field conditions to compete with chemical fungicides. We determined whether transgenic strain SJ3-4 of Trichoderma atroviride, which expresses the Aspergillus niger glucose oxidase-encoding gene, goxA, under a homologous chitinase (nag1) promoter had increased capabilities as a fungal biocontrol agent. The transgenic strain differed only slightly from the wild-type in sporulation or the growth rate. goxA expression occurred immediately after contact with the plant pathogen, and the glucose oxidase formed was secreted. SJ3-4 had significantly less N-acetylglucosaminidase and endochitinase activities than its nontransformed parent. Glucose oxidase-containing culture filtrates exhibited threefold-greater inhibition of germination of spores of Botrytis cinerea. The transgenic strain also more quickly overgrew and lysed the plant pathogens Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium ultimum. In planta, SJ3-4 had no detectable improved effect against low inoculum levels of these pathogens. Beans planted in heavily infested soil and treated with conidia of the transgenic Trichoderma strain germinated, but beans treated with wild-type spores did not germinate. SJ3-4 also was more effective in inducing systemic resistance in plants. Beans with SJ3-4 root protection were highly resistant to leaf lesions caused by the foliar pathogen B. cinerea. This work demonstrates that heterologous genes driven by pathogen-inducible promoters can increase the biocontrol and systemic resistance-inducing properties of fungal biocontrol agents, such as Trichoderma spp., and that these microbes can be used as vectors to provide plants with useful molecules (e.g., glucose oxidase) that can increase their resistance to pathogens.

The G protein alpha subunit Tga1 of Trichoderma atroviride is involved in chitinase formation and differential production of antifungal metabolites.

Trichoderma mycoparasitism includes recognition, attack, overgrowth and lysis of the host fungus accompanied by morphological changes and secretion of hydrolytic enzymes and antibiotics. Studying the underlying signal transduction pathways, the tga1 gene encoding a Galpha subunit of Trichoderma atroviride P1 was analysed. A Deltatga1 mutant showed continuous sporulation and elevated internal steady-state cAMP levels. tga1 gene deletion resulted in a complete loss of mycoparasitic overgrowth and lysis of Rhizoctonia solani, Botrytis cinerea, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum during direct confrontation, although infection structure formation was unaffected. The reduced mycoparasitic abilities were reflected by strongly decreased chitinase activities and reduced nag1 and ech42 gene transcription. Furthermore, production of 6-pentyl-alpha-pyrone and of metabolites with sesquiterpene structure was reduced in the Deltatga1 mutant. Regardless of these deficiencies, the mutant displayed an enhanced growth inhibition of the host fungi by over-producing other low molecular weight antifungal metabolites, suggesting opposite roles of Tga1 in regulating the biosynthesis of different antifungal substances in T. atroviride.

The Nag1 N-acetylglucosaminidase of Trichoderma atroviride is essential for chitinase induction by chitin and of major relevance to biocontrol.

The nag1 gene of the mycoparasitic fungus Trichoderma atroviride encodes a 73-kDa N-acetyl-beta- d-glucosaminidase, which is secreted into the medium and partially bound to the cell wall. To elucidate the role of this enzyme in chitinase induction and biocontrol, a nag1-disruption mutant was prepared. It displayed only 4% of the original N-acetyl-beta- d-glucosaminidase activity, indicating that the nag1 gene product accounts for the majority of this activity in T. atroviride. The nag1-disruption strain was indistinguishable from the parent strain in growth and morphology, but exhibited delayed autolysis. Northern analysis showed that colloidal chitin disruption does not induce ech42 gene transcription in the nag1-disruption strain. Enzyme activities capable of hydrolysing p-nitrophenyl- N, N'-diacetylchitobioside and p-nitrophenyl- N, N'-diacetylchitotriose were also absent from the nag1-disruption strain under the same conditions. Retransformation of the T. atroviride nag1-disruption strain with the nag1 gene essentially led to the parent-type behaviour in all these experiments. However, addition of N-acetyl-beta- d-glucosaminidase to the medium of the nag1-disruption strain did not rescue the mutant phenotype. The disruption- nag1 strain showed 30% reduced ability to protect beans against infection by Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The data indicate that nag1 is essential for triggering chitinase gene expression in T. atroviride and that its functional impairment reduces biocontrol by T. atroviride by a significant extent.

Expression of the ech42 (endochitinase) gene of Trichoderma atroviride under carbon starvation is antagonized via a BrlA-like cis-acting element.

Expression of the endochitinase encoding ech42 gene of the mycoparasite Trichoderma atroviride is subject to control by several environmental signals, including derepression by carbon starvation. In order to identify promoter areas involved in control by this condition, we prepared fusions of several mutant forms of the ech42 promoter to the Aspergillus niger goxA gene as a reporter. Removal of a 130-bp fragment comprising a binding site for the carbon catabolite repressor Cre1, an AGGGG element and three separate binding sites identical and highly similar, respectively, to those for the Aspergillus nidulans regulator of conidiation BrlA resulted in a three-fold increase in derepression under carbon starvation. A truncation of the promoter to 196 bp, which removed all of the observed DNA binding motifs, resulted in five-fold derepression. In vitro protein-DNA binding analyses showed that only the BrlA-like sites, but neither the AGGGG element nor the Cre1 binding site, bound proteins from cell-free extracts from carbon-starved mycelia of T. atroviride. Thus this study identifies a new regulator of chitinase gene expression in Trichoderma, a BrlA-like binding motif.