Where does the time go? Temporal patterns of pumping behaviors in mothers of very preterm infants vary by sociodemographic and clinical factors.

Background: Mothers of very preterm (<32 weeks gestational age [GA]) infants are breast pump dependent and have shorter duration of milk provision than mothers of term infants. The opportunity (i.e., time) cost of pumping and transporting mother's own milk (MOM) from home to the NICU may be a barrier. There is a paucity of data regarding how much time mothers actually spend pumping. Objective: To investigate the variation in pumping behavior by postpartum week, maternal characteristics, and infant GA. Methods: Prospectively collected pump log data from mothers enrolled in ReDiMOM (Reducing Disparity in Mother's Own Milk) randomized, controlled trial included pumping date and start time and end time of each pumping session for the first 10 weeks postpartum or until the infant was discharged from the NICU, whichever occurred first. Outcomes included number of daily pumping sessions, number of minutes spent pumping per day, and pumping behaviors during 24-h periods, aggregated to the postpartum week. Medians (interquartile ranges) were used to describe outcomes overall, and by maternal characteristics and infant GA. Results: Data included 13,994 pump sessions from 75 mothers. Maternal characteristics included 55% Black, 35% Hispanic, and 11% White and 44% <30 years old. The majority (56%) of infants were born at GA 28-31 weeks. Mothers pumped an average of less than 4 times per day, peaking in postpartum week 2. After accounting for mothers who stopped pumping, there was a gradual decrease in daily pumping minutes between postpartum weeks 2 (89 min) and 10 (46 min). Black mothers pumped fewer times daily than non-Black mothers after the first 2 weeks postpartum. Conclusion: On average mothers pumped less intensively than the minimum recommendation of 8 times and 100 min per day. However, these pumping behaviors represent significant maternal opportunity costs that should be valued by the institution and society at large.

Study protocol for reducing disparity in receipt of mother's own milk in very low birth weight infants (ReDiMOM): a randomized trial to improve adherence to sustained maternal breast pump use.

BACKGROUND: Black very low birth weight (VLBW; < 1500 g birth weight) and very preterm (VP, < 32 weeks gestational age, inclusive of extremely preterm, < 28 weeks gestational age) infants are significantly less likely than other VLBW and VP infants to receive mother's own milk (MOM) through to discharge from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). The costs associated with adhering to pumping maternal breast milk are borne by mothers and contribute to this disparity. This randomized controlled trial tests the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of an intervention to offset maternal costs associated with pumping. METHODS: This randomized control trial will enroll 284 mothers and their VP infants to test an intervention (NICU acquires MOM) developed to facilitate maternal adherence to breast pump use by offsetting maternal costs that serve as barriers to sustaining MOM feedings and the receipt of MOM at NICU discharge. Compared to current standard of care (mother provides MOM), the intervention bundle includes three components: a) free hospital-grade electric breast pump, b) pickup of MOM, and c) payment for opportunity costs. The primary outcome is infant receipt of MOM at the time of NICU discharge, and secondary outcomes include infant receipt of any MOM during the NICU hospitalization, duration of MOM feedings (days), and cumulative dose of MOM feedings (total mL/kg of MOM) received by the infant during the NICU hospitalization; maternal duration of MOM pumping (days) and volume of MOM pumped (mLs); and total cost of NICU care. Additionally, we will compare the cost of the NICU acquiring MOM versus NICU acquiring donor human milk if MOM is not available and the cost-effectiveness of the intervention (NICU acquires MOM) versus standard of care (mother provides MOM). DISCUSSION: This trial will determine the effectiveness of an economic intervention that transfers the costs of feeding VLBWand VP infants from mothers to the NICU to address the disparity in the receipt of MOM feedings at NICU discharge by Black infants. The cost-effectiveness analysis will provide data that inform the adoption and scalability of this intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04540575 , registered September 7, 2020.

Psychiatric disorders and young adult milestones in HIV-exposed, uninfected youth.

The global population of perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (HEU) children is growing, with relatively little known about their psychosocial outcomes, particularly across adolescence and young adulthood. Using data from a longitudinal cohort study of HEU youth in New York City (N = 134), we examine rates of substance use disorders (SUD) and non-SUD psychiatric disorders (mood, anxiety, and behavioral) at five time-points during adolescence and young adulthood, as well as associated demographic and environmental factors and the association of ever having a disorder with young adult developmental milestones. HEU participants in this study experienced high rates of psychiatric disorders, particularly SUD in young adulthood. During the entire study period (2003-2018), over one third were diagnosed at least once with a SUD, and 69% were diagnosed with a non-SUD psychiatric disorder. Older age and female gender were associated with higher rates of non-SUD diagnoses. A history of meeting criteria for any disorder at any time point was associated with reduced odds in young adulthood of working or being in school and increased odds of reporting incarceration, homelessness, and recent condomless sex. There is an urgent need to develop systems to follow HEU youth and provide services to intervene and treat psychiatric disorders, including substance use.

Preliminary Validation of an Unannounced Telephone Pill Count Protocol to Measure Medication Adherence Among Young Adults With Perinatal HIV Infection.

Unannounced telephone pill counts are an objective antiretroviral therapy adherence measurement tool, but this method has not been validated in young adults (YA) living with perinatal HIV infection. Perinatally infected YA, recruited from the Child and Adolescent Self-Awareness and Health Study, agreed to unannounced telephone pill counts to measure medication adherence over 4 months and phlebotomy to measure viral load (VL). Differences in pill count adherence scores among YA with a VL of ≤20 versus >20, and demographic differences were assessed. Participants (N = 62) were, on average, 24 years old; 57% were African American, and 40% were Latino. Participants with VL of ≤20 (60%) had significantly higher adherence scores (85% versus 62%; p = .004). Associations were not significant among older YA (range, 25-28 years) or Latinos. Unannounced telephone pill counts are a valid measure of antiretroviral therapy adherence in YA with perinatal HIV infection. Studies with larger samples are needed.

Caregiver perceptions of environment moderate relationship between neighborhood characteristics and language skills among youth living with perinatal HIV and uninfected youth exposed to HIV in New York City.

Despite the increased recognition of how neighborhood conditions bear on cognitive and academic outcomes, no studies have examined the influences of objective and subjective neighborhood indices on specific areas of cognitive functioning among youth living with perinatal HIV (PHIV). In the United States (US), this is of particular concern as HIV has disproportionately affected African American youth living in economically disadvantaged and racially segregated communities. Thus, based on a longitudinal cohort study of psychosocial and behavioral health outcomes in 340 perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (PHEU) and PHIV youth residing in New York City, ages 9-16 years at enrollment, we analyzed data from baseline and multiple follow-up (FU) quantitative interviews with youth and their primary caregivers, from when they were at least 13-years-old (approximately 4-6 years post enrollment). We examined the association between baseline neighborhood indices (2000 US census data and caregiver's perception of neighborhood stressors) and youth receptive language skills (PPVT; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) at FU2 and FU3. Census data (percentage of families in neighborhood living below the national poverty rate, median neighborhood household income, and percentage of residents professionally employed) were not independently associated with PPVT scores at both follow-ups. However, in the logistic regression model, the more caregivers perceived their neighborhood as stressful and subjected to violence, the stronger the relationship between census data indicators of low resource neighborhoods and lower PPVT scores for both groups. Findings support "place-based" policies and practices that alleviate caregiver experiences of neighborhood stressors which may contribute to improved cognitive outcomes for youth living with and affected by PHIV.

Behavioral Health and Adult Milestones in Young Adults With Perinatal HIV Infection or Exposure.

BACKGROUND: Young adults living with perinatally acquired HIV infection (PHIVYAs) are at risk for poor biomedical and behavioral health outcomes. Few studies offer a comprehensive overview of the functioning of this population in young adulthood and the role of HIV. METHODS: Data come from the Child and Adolescent Self-Awareness and Health Study, a longitudinal behavioral health cohort study of PHIVYAs and perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected young adults (PHEUYAs) who are compared on psychiatric and neurocognitive functioning, sexual and substance use behaviors, health and reproductive outcomes, and young adult milestones. RESULTS: Overall, 27% of participants met criteria for a psychiatric disorder, including mood (11%), anxiety (22%), and substance use (28%), with no HIV status differences. PHIVYAs performed worse on 2 neurocognitive tests. There were no HIV status differences in condomless sex (41%) or pregnancies (41% women; 38% men). Both groups exhibited similar adult milestones: 67% graduated high school or an equivalent, 19% were in college, and 42% were employed. However, 38% were neither in school or working, 12% reported incarceration, and 16% were ever homeless. Among PHIVYAs, 36% were viremic (>200 copies per mL), and 15% were severely immunocompromised (CD4+ cell count <100 cells per mm3). CONCLUSIONS: Many PHIVYAs achieve adult milestones related to school, employment, sexual relationships, and starting families. However, they and PHEUYAs have high rates of psychiatric and substance use disorders and behavioral risks, which can jeopardize long-term health and adult functioning, particularly in the context of HIV. These findings underscore an urgent need to escalate interventions.

Association Between Psychiatric Disorders, Substance Use, and Sexual Risk Behaviors in Perinatally HIV-Exposed Youth.

As youth with perinatally acquired HIV infection age, there is a need for studies that identify predictors and correlates of sexual risk behaviors. We examined the association between psychiatric disorders and substance use disorders (SUD) with sexual risk behaviors in youth with perinatally acquired HIV infection and perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected youth. Participants were recruited from four medical centers in New York City. The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children and the Adolescent Sexual Behavior Assessment were administered to assess psychiatric disorders and sexual behaviors, respectively. SUD and behavior disorders were correlated with either ever having had penetrative sex or recent condomless sex for participants with perinatally acquired HIV infection only. Results suggest that clinicians should screen and treat patients for SUD and behavioral disorders to reduce sexual risk behaviors in youth with perinatally acquired HIV infection.

Predicting Arrest in a Sample of Youth Perinatally Exposed to HIV: The Intersection of HIV and Key Contextual Factors.

We examined the role of youth HIV status and other key factors on past-year arrest in perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (PHIV-) and perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV+) youth using data from a multi-site study of psychosocial behaviors in PHIV-exposed urban youth (N = 340; 61% PHIV+; 51% female; ages 9-16 at baseline). Youth and caregivers were administered 5 interviews, spanning approximately 7.5 years. Using longitudinal logistic mixed-effect models, we explored the association between past year arrest, internal [e.g., substance use disorder (SUD)] and external (e.g., neighborhood arrest rates) contextual factors, and social-regulation processes (e.g., in-school/work). Arrest rates increased from 2.6 to 19.7% across follow-ups; there were no differences in arrest over time by HIV status. In the final model, odds of arrest were greater for youth who were male, with SUD, ≥ 18 years old, with high levels of city stress, and neither in school nor employed. PHIV-exposed, urban youth have much higher rates of arrest than national samples. Lack of differences in arrest by HIV status suggests key contextual factors are more important in promoting arrest.

Psychiatric Disorders, Antiretroviral Medication Adherence and Viremia in a Cohort of Perinatally HIV-Infected Adolescents and Young Adults.

BACKGROUND: Perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV+) adolescents and young adults (AYA) are at risk for suboptimal antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence and mental health and substance use problems that, in HIV-infected adults, predict nonadherence. Studies on the relationship between psychiatric and substance use disorders (SUD) and adherence among PHIV+ AYA are limited, but may be important for informing evidence-based interventions to promote adherence. METHODS: Data were analyzed from 3 annual follow-up interviews (FU2-FU4, N = 179) in a longitudinal study of PHIV+ AYA. Psychiatric disorders (anxiety, disruptive behavior, mood and SUD) were assessed with the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children. Adherence was self-reported missed ART doses within the past week. Viral load (VL) results were abstracted from medical charts. Multiple logistic regression analyzed cross-sectional associations between psychiatric disorders and (1) missed ART dose and (2) VL > 1000 copies/mL. Multiple linear regression assessed associations between psychiatric disorders and proportion of VL values >1000 copies/mL over time. RESULTS: At FU2, 53% of PHIV+ AYA had any psychiatric disorder, 35% missed an ART dose in the past week and 47% had a VL > 1000 copies/mL. At FU2, behavioral disorders were associated with missed dose (P = 0.009) and VL > 1000 (P = 0.019), and mood disorders were associated with missed dose (P = 0.041). At FU4, behavioral disorders were associated with missed dose (P = 0.009). Behavioral disorders (P = 0.041), SUD (P = 0.016) and any disorder (P = 0.008) at FU2 were associated with higher proportion of VLs >1000 across FU2-FU4. CONCLUSIONS: Addressing psychiatric disorder and SUD among PHIV+ AYA may improve ART adherence outcomes in this population. Targeted interventions should be developed and tested.

Use of Unannounced Telephone Pill Counts to Measure Medication Adherence Among Adolescents and Young Adults Living With Perinatal HIV Infection.

Objective: To examine unannounced telephone pill counts as a measure of adherence to antiretroviral therapy among adolescents and young adults living with perinatal HIV infection. Methods: Participants were recruited from an ongoing longitudinal study to complete four monthly, unannounced telephone pill counts. Detailed notes concerning participants' medication habits surrounding adherence were recorded. Results: Two-thirds of 102 eligible participants aged 18-27 years participated; 57% were female, 69% were Black. Blacks and participants with viral loads >40 and >1,000 copies/ml were less likely to participate. Average adherence across calls was 77%. Those who completed all calls averaged significantly higher adherence scores than those who did not. Calls revealed adherence barriers at individual (e.g., medication disorganization), social (e.g., limited support), and system (e.g., pharmacy problems) levels. Conclusions: Despite challenges, this procedure can be implemented with this population and can help identify adherence barriers important for interventions that address medication-taking behaviors.

Patterns and Correlates of Serostatus Disclosure to Sexual Partners by Perinatally-Infected Adolescents and Young Adults.

Similar to same-age peers, perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV+) youth in the US are engaging in sex, including condomless sex. Understanding decisions about serostatus disclosure to sexual partners is important to domestic and global HIV prevention efforts, since large numbers of PHIV+ children are entering adolescence and becoming sexually active. Using Social Action Theory (SAT) to inform variable selection, we examined correlates of disclosure among 98 PHIV+ adolescents/young adults in New York City. Over half of these youth reported not disclosing to any casual partners (59 %) or to any partners when using condoms (55 %). In bivariate analyses, increased disclosure was associated with older age; being female; earlier age of learning one's serostatus; and increased STD knowledge, disclosure intentions, and parent-child communication. Multiple regression analyses revealed a strong fit with the SAT model. As with adults, disclosure to sexual partners is difficult for PHIV+ youth and challenges prevention efforts. Effective interventions that help youth with disclosure decisions are needed to curb the epidemic.

Black-White Differences in Sex and Contraceptive Use Among Young Women.

This study examines black-white and other sociodemographic differences in young women's sexual and contraceptive behaviors, using new longitudinal data from a weekly journal-based study of 1,003 18- to 19-year-old women spanning 2.5 years. We investigate hypotheses about dynamic processes in these behaviors during early adulthood in order to shed light on persisting racial differences in rates of unintended pregnancies in the United States. We find that net of other sociodemographic characteristics and adolescent experiences with sex and pregnancy, black women spent less time in relationships and had sex less frequently in their relationships than white women, but did not differ in the number of relationships they formed or in their frequency or consistency of contraceptive use within relationships. Black women were more likely to use less effective methods for pregnancy prevention (e.g., condoms) than white women, who tended to use more effective methods (e.g., oral contraceptives). And although the most effective method for pregnancy prevention-long-acting reversible contraception (LARC)-was used more often by black women than white women, LARC use was low in both groups. In addition, black women did not differ from white women in their number of discontinuations or different methods used and had fewer contraceptive method switches. Further, we find that net of race and adolescent experiences with sex and pregnancy, women from more-disadvantaged backgrounds had fewer and longer (and thus potentially more serious) relationships, used contraception less frequently (but not less consistently), and used less effective methods (condoms) than women from more-advantaged backgrounds.

A Prospective Longitudinal Study of Mental Health Symptoms Among Perinatally HIV-Infected and HIV-Exposed but Uninfected Urban Youths.

PURPOSE: Significant gaps persist in our understanding of the etiological factors that shape the progression of mental health symptoms (MHS) among perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV+) and perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (PHEU) youths. This study sought to assess the changes in MHS among PHIV+ and PHEU youths as they transition through adolescence and to identify the associated psychosocial factors. METHODS: Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of 166 PHIV+ and 114 PHEU youths (49% male, ages 9-16 years at baseline) in New York City. Individual interviews were administered at baseline and subsequently over a 5-year period. MHS were assessed using the youth version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children. Predictive growth curve analyses were conducted to assess longitudinal changes in MHS and identify the relevant factors. Level I predictors included: time, major life events, household poverty, caregiver mental health, and neighborhood stressors. Level II predictors included youths' sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, HIV status) and baseline future orientation scores. RESULTS: The changes in youths' MHS followed a quadratic growth curve and were positively associated with the number of major negative life events and neighborhood stressors experienced. Youths' HIV status, household poverty, and caregiver mental health were not significantly associated with youths' MHS. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that irrespective of youths' HIV status, major life events and neighborhood stressors increase MHS among PHIV+ and PHEU youths. There is a need for interventions to reduce the impact of stressors on the mental well-being of PHIV+ and PHEU youths.

Specialized family planning clinics in the United States: why women choose them and their role in meeting women's health care needs.

BACKGROUND: Publicly funded family planning clinics provide contraceptive care to millions of poor and low-income women every year. To inform the design of services that will best meet the contraceptive and reproductive health needs of women, we conducted a targeted survey of family planning clinic clients, asking women about services received in the past year and about their reasons for visiting a specialized family planning clinic. METHODS: We surveyed 2,094 women receiving services from 22 family planning clinics in 13 states; all sites included in the survey were clinics that specialize in contraceptive and reproductive health services and were located in communities with comprehensive primary care providers. RESULTS: Six in 10 (59%) respondents had made a health care visit to another provider in the past year, but chose the family planning clinic for contraceptive care. Four in 10 (41%) respondents relied on the family planning clinic as their only recent source for health care. The four most common reasons for choosing a specialized family planning clinic, reported by at least 80% of respondents, were respectful staff, confidential care, free or low-cost services, and staff who are knowledgeable about women's health. CONCLUSIONS: Specialized family planning clinics play an important role as part of the health care safety net in the United States. Collaborations between such clinics and comprehensive primary care providers, such as federally qualified health centers, may be one model for ensuring women on-going access to the full range of care they need.