IL-35 production by inducible costimulator (ICOS)-positive regulatory T cells reverses established IL-17-dependent allergic airways disease.

BACKGROUND: Recent evidence suggests that IL-17 contributes to airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR); however, the mechanisms that suppress the production of this cytokine remain poorly defined. OBJECTIVE: We sought to identify the regulatory cells and molecules that suppress IL-17-dependent allergic airways disease. METHODS: Mice were sensitized by means of airway instillations of ovalbumin together with low levels of LPS. Leukocyte recruitment to the lung and AHR were assessed after daily challenges with aerosolized ovalbumin. Flow cytometry, quantitative PCR, and gene-targeted mice were used to identify naturally arising subsets of regulatory T (Treg) cells and their cytokines required for the suppression of established allergic airway disease. RESULTS: Allergic sensitization through the airway primed both effector and regulatory responses. Effector responses were initially dominant and led to airway inflammation and IL-17-dependent AHR. However, after multiple daily allergen challenges, IL-17 production and AHR decreased, even though pulmonary levels of T(H)17 cells remained high. This loss of AHR was reversible and required the expansion of a Treg cell subset expressing both forkhead box protein 3 and inducible costimulator. These Treg cells also expressed the regulatory cytokines IL-10, TGF-ß, and IL-35. Whereas IL-10 and TGF-ß were dispensable for suppression of AHR, IL-35 was required. CONCLUSION: IL-35 production by inducible costimulator-positive Treg cells can suppress IL-17 production and thereby reverse established, IL-17-dependent AHR in mice. Targeting this pathway might therefore be of therapeutic value for treating allergic asthma in human subjects.

Examination of the role of TRPM8 in human mast cell activation and its relevance to the etiology of cold-induced urticaria.

Mast cells are considered the primary initiators of allergic diseases as a consequence of the release of multiple inflammatory mediators on activation. Although predominately activated through antigen-mediated aggregation of IgE-occupied-FcɛRI, they can also be induced to release mediators by other receptors and environmental stimuli. Based on studies conducted in the RBL 2H3 rodent mast cell line, the transient receptor potential melastatin 8 (TRPM8) cation channel has been implicated in the activation of mast cells in response to cold and, by inference, the development of urticaria. Here we investigated the expression and role of TRPM8 receptor, in both human and mouse non-transformed cells, with the aim of exploring the potential link between TRPM8 and the pathology of cold urticaria in humans. Although expressed in mouse mast cells, we found no evidence of TRPM8 expression in human mast cells or functional mutations in TRPM8 in cold urticaria patients. Furthermore, neither mouse nor human primary cultured mast cells degranulated in response to cold challenge or TRPM8 agonists and mast cell reactivity was unaffected in Trpm8(-/-) mice. From these data, we conclude that TRPM8 is unlikely to directly regulate mast cell activation in cold urticaria. Thus, alternative mechanisms likely exist for the pathogenesis of this disease.

The Environmental Polymorphism Registry: a unique resource that facilitates translational research of environmental disease.

BACKGROUND: Dissecting complex disease has become more feasible because of the availability of large-scale DNA resources and advances in high-throughput genomic technology. Although these tools help scientists identify potential susceptibility loci, subjects with relevant genotypes are needed for clinical phenotyping and toxicity studies. OBJECTIVE: We have developed a resource of subjects and their DNA to use for translational research of environmental disease. METHODS: More than 15,000 individuals of diverse sex, age, race, and ethnicity were recruited from North Carolina. DNA was isolated from their blood and coded with personal identification numbers linked to their identities. This linked resource of subjects and their DNA-the Environmental Polymorphism Registry (EPR)-allows scientists to screen for individuals with genotypes of interest and invite them to participate in follow-up studies. DISCUSSION: The EPR is a phenotype-by-genotype resource designed to facilitate translational studies of environmental disease. Based on their genotypes, subjects are invited to participate at all levels of research, from basic laboratory ex vivo cell phenotyping experiments that require viable tissue to in vivo observational studies and clinical trials. Here we report on progress of the EPR since 2008. We also describe a major effort at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) to investigate susceptibility loci in 87 environmental response genes and gene × environment interactions using EPR resources. CONCLUSION: The EPR is a unique and novel resource and is ideal for genotype-driven translational research of environmental disease. We expect that it will serve as a model for future resources. Such tools help scientists attain their ultimate goals: to identify at-risk populations and develop strategies for preventing and treating human disease.

The bacteriophage T4 rapid-lysis genes and their mutational proclivities.

Like most phages with double-stranded DNA, phage T4 exits the infected host cell by a lytic process requiring, at a minimum, an endolysin and a holin. Unlike most phages, T4 can sense superinfection (which signals the depletion of uninfected host cells) and responds by delaying lysis and achieving an order-of-magnitude increase in burst size using a mechanism called lysis inhibition (LIN). T4 r mutants, which are unable to conduct LIN, produce distinctly large, sharp-edged plaques. The discovery of r mutants was key to the foundations of molecular biology, in particular to discovering and characterizing genetic recombination in T4, to redefining the nature of the gene, and to exploring the mutation process at the nucleotide level of resolution. A number of r genes have been described in the past 7 decades with various degrees of clarity. Here we describe an extensive and perhaps saturating search for T4 r genes and relate the corresponding mutational spectra to the often imperfectly known physiologies of the proteins encoded by these genes. Focusing on r genes whose mutant phenotypes are largely independent of the host cell, the genes are rI (which seems to sense superinfection and signal the holin to delay lysis), rIII (of poorly defined function), rIV (same as sp and also of poorly defined function), and rV (same as t, the holin gene). We did not identify any mutations that might correspond to a putative rVI gene, and we did not focus on the famous rII genes because they appear to affect lysis only indirectly.

Toll-like receptor 4 Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile polymorphisms and typhoid susceptibility in Asian Malay population in Malaysia.

Typhoid fever is a major health problem with frequent outbreaks in Kelantan, Malaysia. Prevalence of TLR4 gene polymorphisms varies with ethnic groups (0-20%) and predisposean individual to gram-negative infections. The prevalence rate of TLR4 Asp299Gly and Thr399lle polymorphisms in the Malay population or the influence of these on typhoid fever susceptibility is not yet reported. 250 normal and 304 susceptible Malay individuals were investigated for these polymorphisms using allele-specific PCR and analysed for its association with typhoid fever susceptibility. The total prevalence of polymorphisms in the normal population was 4.8% in comparison to 12.5% in the susceptible population (p = 0.002). An increased frequency of both polymorphisms was observed in the susceptible population (p < 0.01) with no homozygous mutants observed. Co-segregation was observed in 2% of controls and 3.6% of the susceptible individuals. This study, for the first time, reports the prevalence of TLR4 gene polymorphisms in the Malay population and suggests that these polymorphisms confer a higher risk for typhoid, infection. The higher incidence of typhoid fever in Kelantan could be attributed to the higher percentage of Malays (95%) in this state. In order to reduce the incidence of this disease, people with these polymorphisms, can be prioritised for prophylactic strategies.

Damage-induced localized hypermutability.

Genome instability continuously presents perils of cancer, genetic disease and death of a cell or an organism. At the same time, it provides for genome plasticity that is essential for development and evolution. We address here the genome instability confined to a small fraction of DNA adjacent to free DNA ends at uncapped telomeres and double-strand breaks. We found that budding yeast cells can tolerate nearly 20 kilobase regions of subtelomeric single-strand DNA that contain multiple UV-damaged nucleotides. During restoration to the double-strand state, multiple mutations are generated by error-prone translesion synthesis. Genome-wide sequencing demonstrated that multiple regions of damage-induced localized hypermutability can be tolerated, which leads to the simultaneous appearance of multiple mutation clusters in the genomes of UV- irradiated cells. High multiplicity and density of mutations suggest that this novel form of genome instability may play significant roles in generating new alleles for evolutionary selection as well as in the incidence of cancer and genetic disease.

Genetic variation in soluble epoxide hydrolase (EPHX2) is associated with forearm vasodilator responses in humans.

Cytochrome P450-derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids are potent vasodilators in preclinical models and are hydrolyzed by soluble epoxide hydrolase (EPHX2). Associations between the EPHX2 Lys55Arg and Arg287Gln polymorphisms and cardiovascular disease risk have been reported; however, their impact on vascular function in humans has not been investigated. In 265 volunteers (198 white, 67 black American), forearm blood flow was measured by strain-gauge venous occlusion plethysmography at baseline and in response to bradykinin, methacholine, and sodium nitroprusside. Forearm vascular resistance was calculated as mean arterial pressure/forearm blood flow. In white Americans, Lys55Arg genotype was associated with vasodilator response to bradykinin, such that forearm blood flow was significantly lower (P = 0.043) and forearm vascular resistance was significantly higher (P = 0.013) in Arg55 variant allele carriers compared to wild-type individuals. Significant associations were also observed with methacholine and sodium nitroprusside. In contrast, no relationship was observed in black Americans. In black Americans, Arg287Gln genotype was associated with vasodilator response to bradykinin. Although the difference in forearm blood flow did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.058), forearm vascular resistance was significantly lower (P = 0.037) in Gln287 variant allele carriers compared to wild-type individuals. Significant associations were also observed with methacholine and sodium nitroprusside. In white Americans, Gln287 variant allele carriers did not exhibit significantly higher forearm blood flow (P = 0.128) or lower forearm vascular resistance (P = 0.080). Genetic variation in EPHX2 is associated with forearm vasodilator responses in a bradykinin receptor- and endothelium-independent manner, suggesting an important role for soluble epoxide hydrolase in the regulation of vascular function in humans.

Novel regulators of the systemic response to lipopolysaccharide.

Our understanding of the role that host genetic factors play in the initiation and severity of infections caused by gram-negative bacteria is incomplete. To identify novel regulators of the host response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 11 inbred murine strains were challenged with LPS systemically. In addition to two strains lacking functional TLR4 (C3H/HeJ and C57BL/6J(TLR4-/-)), three murine strains with functional TLR4 (C57BL/6J, 129/SvImJ, and NZW/LacJ) were found to be relatively resistant to systemic LPS challenge; the other six strains were classified as sensitive. RNA from lung, liver, and spleen tissue was profiled on oligonucleotide microarrays to determine if unique transcripts differentiate susceptible and resistant strains. Gene expression analysis identified the Hedgehog signaling pathway and a number of transcription factors (TFs) involved in the response to LPS. RNA interference-mediated inhibition of six TFs (C/EBP, Cdx-2, E2F1, Hoxa4, Nhlh1, and Tead2) was found to diminish IL-6 and TNF-α production by murine macrophages. Mouse lines with targeted mutations were used to verify the involvement of two novel genes in innate immunity. Compared with wild-type control mice, mice deficient in the E2F1 transcription factor were found to have a reduced inflammatory response to systemic LPS, and mice heterozygote for Ptch, a gene involved in Hedgehog signaling, were found to be more responsive to systemic LPS. Our analysis of gene expression data identified novel pathways and transcription factors that regulate the host response to systemic LPS. Our results provide potential sepsis biomarkers and therapeutic targets that should be further investigated in human populations.

Gender-related tumor necrosis factor-alpha responses in naïve volunteers with Toll-like receptor 4 polymorphisms exposed in a swine confinement facility.

The aim of this work is to better understand the responses of people that are exposed to agricultural organic dust and other factors in modern swine production. We investigated the effects of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) genotype and gender on respiratory responses of naïve volunteers (18-28 years) to swine barn exposure. Non-smoking healthy subjects (16 men and 13 women) with TLR4 299 (Asp299Gly) and/or 399 (Thr399Ile) polymorphisms (TLR4 299/399) and age-sex matched subjects with TLR4 wild-type alleles spent 5 h in a nonexposed environment (baseline day) and 5 h in a swine facility (exposure day). The results showed significant decreases between baseline and exposure days in across-shift forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV(1)), forced midexpiratory flow rate (FEF(25-75)), and FEV(1)/FVC ratio and in methacholine concentration that reduced FEV1 by 20% (PC(20)) in all groups; however, there were no differences by sex or genotype. Similarly, nasal cytokines, serum cytokines, and blood neutrophil count increased after exposure; in contrast, however, these were influenced by gender. The increase in serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) between baseline and exposure was gender-dependent with male sex associated with a significant increase in the wild-type group and female sex associated with a significant increase in the polymorphic group. These results suggest that for persons exposed to a swine facility, one's immunological response varies with gender as well as TLR4 genotype.

Toll-like receptor 4 variants reduce airway response in human subjects at high endotoxin levels in a swine facility.

BACKGROUND: Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) variants have been shown to reduce the respiratory responses to inhaled LPS in controlled experiments among healthy volunteers. OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate whether naive subjects with TLR4 variants showed reduced respiratory response to a complex aerosol including endotoxin as a major constituent. METHODS: Twenty-nine nonsmoking, nonatopic healthy subjects with TLR4 299/399 polymorphisms and 29 age- and sex-matched, wild-type TLR4 control subjects were exposed for 5 hours each in a noncontaminated environment (baseline day) and in a swine confinement facility (exposure day). There were 16 men and 13 women in each of the 2 age- and sex-matched groups. RESULTS: TLR4 polymorphic subjects who were exposed to high endotoxin levels (>or=1550 EU/m(3)) had less reduction in the percentage across-shift change in FEV(1) from baseline than did wild-type subjects exposed to similar endotoxin levels. Among subjects exposed to higher endotoxin levels, the mean differences in the percentage across-shift changes between baseline and exposure days were significantly less in TLR4 polymorphic subjects compared with those seen in wild-type subjects in FEV(1) (-8.48% +/- 1.52% [mean +/- SE] vs -11.46% +/- 1.79%, P = .001), forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of forced vital capacity (-18.30% +/- 1.99% vs -24.14% +/- 3.28%, P = .009), and FEV(1)/forced vital capacity ratio (-5.40% +/- 0.56% vs -8.53% +/- 1.51%, P = .04). These patterns were not observed in IL-6 levels from serum and nasal lavage fluid, IL-8 levels from nasal lavage fluid, white blood cell counts, or blood differential counts. CONCLUSION: The association between TLR4 variants and reduced airway responsiveness to inhaled particulate was observed at high endotoxin concentrations, creating the possibility of certain threshold phenomena for the apparent protective effect of TLR4 variants.

Histo-blood group gene polymorphisms as potential genetic modifiers of infection and cystic fibrosis lung disease severity.

BACKGROUND: The pulmonary phenotype in cystic fibrosis (CF) is variable; thus, environmental and genetic factors likely contribute to clinical heterogeneity. We hypothesized that genetically determined ABO histo-blood group antigen (ABH) differences in glycosylation may lead to differences in microbial binding by airway mucus, and thus predispose to early lung infection and more severe lung disease in a subset of patients with CF. METHODS AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Clinical information and DNA was collected on >800 patients with the DeltaF508/DeltaF508 genotype. Patients in the most severe and mildest quartiles for lung phenotype were enrolled. Blood samples underwent lymphocyte transformation and DNA extraction using standard methods. PCR and sequencing were performed using standard techniques to identify the 9 SNPs required to determine ABO blood type, and to identify the four SNPs that account for 90-95% of Lewis status in Caucasians. Allele identification of the one nonsynonymous SNP in FUT2 that accounts for >95% of the incidence of nonsecretor phenotype in Caucasians was completed using an ABI Taqman assay. The overall prevalence of ABO types, and of FUT2 (secretor) and FUT 3 (Lewis) alleles was consistent with that found in the Caucasian population. There was no difference in distribution of ABH type in the severe versus mild patients, or the age of onset of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in the severe or mild groups. Multivariate analyses of other clinical phenotypes, including gender, asthma, and meconium ileus demonstrated no differences between groups based on ABH type. CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE: Polymorphisms in the genes encoding ABO blood type, secretor or Lewis genotypes were not shown to associate with severity of CF lung disease, or age of onset of P. aeruginosa infection, nor was there any association with other clinical phenotypes in a group of 808 patients homozygous for the DeltaF508 mutation.

In vitro production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha by human monocytes stimulated with lipopolysaccharide is positively correlated with increased blood monocytes after exposure to a swine barn.

Recently there has been interest in the air quality in and around intensive livestock production facilities, such as modern swine production barns, where agricultural workers and surrounding residents may be exposed to elevated levels of organic dusts. The health effects of these exposures are not completely understood. The study that is reported here is a component of a larger investigation of the relationships among the acute effects of high-concentration endotoxin exposure (swine barn dust), polymorphisms in the TLR4 gene, and respiratory outcomes following exposure to swine confinement buildings. The relationships among a mediator of acute lung inflammation, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), and clinical responses to acute swine barn exposure were characterized. Analysis of the results showed that in vitro stimulation of human monocytes with as little as 1 ng/ml of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) produced a significant increase in the monocytes that produced TNF-alpha. Although the proportion of TNF-alpha-positive monocytes after in vitro stimulation with 1 ng/ml of LPS was not associated with gender or TLR4 genotype, it was positively associated with the concentration of monocytes in blood after barn exposure. Thus, these two responses to different forms of LPS exposure are significantly correlated, and more responsive monocytes in vitro indicate a forthcoming relative monocytosis, post barn exposure, which may initiate a cascade of chronic inflammation.

Association of polymorphisms of toll-like receptor 4 with a reduced prevalence of hay fever and atopy.

BACKGROUND: The response to innate immune stimuli seems to be critical to conditioning adaptive immunity. Early exposure to endotoxin initiates immune responses that have been shown to alter the risk of asthma and allergic diseases. The toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) gene encodes the principal innate immunity receptor in humans for bacterial endotoxin. Polymorphisms in the TLR4 gene may regulate the effects of endotoxin exposure and could play a role in the development of asthma and atopy-related phenotypes. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between TLR4 polymorphisms and allergic phenotypes in nonsmokers. METHODS: The data from 915 nonsmoking students were available for the study. The TLR4 299 and 399 polymorphisms were genotyped using mouthwash samples. The TLR4 299 and 399 polymorphisms were grouped together to define the TLR4 polymorphic group. Skin prick tests were conducted in a subgroup of healthy participants. A brief questionnaire was administered to determine demographic characteristics and chronic health conditions. RESULTS: The prevalence of hay fever was 0% in the TLR4 polymorphic group and 7.5% in the wild-type group (P = .01). After controlling for age group and sex using logistic regression, the odds of having hay fever were reduced by 88% (P = .009) in the TLR4 polymorphic group compared with the wild-type group. In a subgroup analysis, the association between TLR4 polymorphisms and atopy was only observed among females. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this study is the first to report an association between TLR4 polymorphisms and atopy-related phenotypes in a nonsmoking population. Further investigation of the role of TLR4 polymorphisms in asthma and atopy-related phenotypes is warranted.

Fibroproliferation in LPS-induced airway remodeling and bleomycin-induced fibrosis share common patterns of gene expression.

Chronic LPS inhalation causes submucosal thickening and airway narrowing. To address the hypothesis that environmental airway disease is, in part, a fibroproliferative lung disease, we exposed C57BL/6 mice daily to LPS by inhalation for up to 2 months followed by 1 month of recovery. C57BL/6 mice exposed to daily inhaled LPS had significantly enhanced mRNA expression of TGF-beta1, TIMP-1, fibronectin-1, and pro-collagen types I, III, and IV and show prominent submucosal expression of the myofibroblast markers desmin and alpha-smooth muscle actin. To further characterize global gene expression in airway fibroproliferation, we performed microarray analysis on total lung RNA from mice exposed to LPS both acutely and chronically. This analysis revealed a subset of genes typically associated with lung injury and repair, and ECM homeostasis. To further identify candidate genes specifically involved in generic fibroproliferation, we interrogated this analysis with genes induced in C57BL/6 mouse lung by bleomycin. This analysis yielded a list of 212 genes in common suggesting that there is a common subset of genes that regulate fibroproliferation in the lung independent of etiologic agent and site of injury.

Plasminogen alleles influence susceptibility to invasive aspergillosis.

Invasive aspergillosis (IA) is a common and life-threatening infection in immunocompromised individuals. A number of environmental and epidemiologic risk factors for developing IA have been identified. However, genetic factors that affect risk for developing IA have not been clearly identified. We report that host genetic differences influence outcome following establishment of pulmonary aspergillosis in an exogenously immune suppressed mouse model. Computational haplotype-based genetic analysis indicated that genetic variation within the biologically plausible positional candidate gene plasminogen (Plg; Gene ID 18855) correlated with murine outcome. There was a single nonsynonymous coding change (Gly110Ser) where the minor allele was found in all of the susceptible strains, but not in the resistant strains. A nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphism (Asp472Asn) was also identified in the human homolog (PLG; Gene ID 5340). An association study within a cohort of 236 allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients revealed that alleles at this SNP significantly affected the risk of developing IA after HSCT. Furthermore, we demonstrated that plasminogen directly binds to Aspergillus fumigatus. We propose that genetic variation within the plasminogen pathway influences the pathogenesis of this invasive fungal infection.

The IL-1 type 1 receptor is required for the development of LPS-induced airways disease.

BACKGROUND: The contribution of IL-1beta signaling through the IL-1 type 1 receptor (IL-1R1) to the development of persistent LPS-induced airway disease has not been investigated. OBJECTIVE: To determine the importance of signaling through the IL-1 type 1 receptor in the development of LPS-induced airway disease. METHODS: We exposed IL-1R1-deficient (C57BL/6(IL-1RI-/-)) mice to an aerosol of LPS or filtered air for 1 day, 1 week, or 4 weeks. RESULTS: After 4 weeks of LPS inhalation, C57BL/6(IL-1RI-/-) mice failed to develop significant submucosal thickening, whereas C57BL/6 mice had significantly thickened submucosa in small, medium, and large airways compared with those of unexposed control mice. Cell proliferation in the airways of both the 1-week and 4-week LPS-exposed C57BL/6(IL-1RI-/-) mice was significantly reduced compared with LPS-exposed C57BL/6 mice. mRNA for type III alpha-3 procollagen was significantly elevated over baseline in C57BL/6 yet remained unchanged compared with baseline in C57BL/6(IL-1RI-/-) mice after 1 week or 4 weeks of LPS inhalation. mRNA for tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease 1 in C57BL/6 mice in the 1-week and 4-week groups was significantly elevated over both control mice and C57BL/6(IL-1RI-/-) mice. CONCLUSION: These data support the hypothesis that signaling through the IL-1 receptor modulates extracellular matrix homeostasis in response to inhaled LPS. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Attenuating IL-1R1-mediated signaling might be an effective therapy against the development of airway remodeling in chronic inflammatory diseases.

Gene expression profiling of familial and sporadic interstitial pneumonia.

RATIONALE: Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia (IIP) and its familial variants are progressive and largely untreatable disorders with poorly understood molecular mechanisms. Both the genetics and the histologic type of IIP play a role in the etiology and pathogenesis of interstitial lung disease, but transcriptional signatures of these subtypes are unknown. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate gene expression in the lung tissue of patients with usual interstitial pneumonia or nonspecific interstitial pneumonia that was either familial or nonfamilial in origin, and to compare it with gene expression in normal lung parenchyma. METHODS: We profiled RNA from the lungs of 16 patients with sporadic IIP, 10 with familial IIP, and 9 normal control subjects on a whole human genome oligonucleotide microarray. RESULTS: Significant transcriptional differences exist in familial and sporadic IIPs. The genes distinguishing the genetic subtypes belong to the same functional categories as transcripts that distinguish IIP from normal samples. Relevant categories include chemokines and growth factors and their receptors, complement components, genes associated with cell proliferation and death, and genes in the Wnt pathway. The role of the chemokine CXCL12 in disease pathogenesis was confirmed in the murine bleomycin model of lung injury, with C57BL/6(CXCR4+/-) mice demonstrating significantly less collagen deposition than C57BL/6(CXCR4+/+) mice. Whereas substantial differences exist between familial and sporadic IIPs, we identified only minor gene expression changes between usual interstitial pneumonia and nonspecific interstitial pneumonia. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, our findings indicate that differences in gene expression profiles between familial and sporadic IIPs may provide clues to the etiology and pathogenesis of IIP.

Genetic basis of murine responses to hyperoxia-induced lung injury.

To evaluate the effect of genetic background on oxygen (O2) toxicity, nine genetically diverse mouse strains (129/SvIm, A/J, BALB/cJ, BTBR+(T)/tf/tf, CAST/Ei, C3H/HeJ, C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, and FVB/NJ) were exposed to more than 99% O2 for 72 h. Immediately following the hyperoxic challenge, the mouse strains demonstrated distinct pathophysiologic responses. The BALB/cJ and CAST/Ei strains, which were the only strains to demonstrate mortality from the hyperoxic challenges, were also the only strains to display significant neutrophil infiltration into their lower respiratory tract. In addition, the O2-challenged BALB/cJ and CAST/Ei mice were among six strains (A/J, BALB/cJ, CAST/Ei, BTBR+(T)/tf/tf, DBA/2J, and C3H/HeJ) that had significantly increased interleukin 6 concentrations in the whole lung lavage fluid and were among all but one strain that had large increases in lung permeability compared with air-exposed controls. In contrast, the DBA/2J strain was the only strain not to have any significant alterations in lung permeability following hyperoxic challenge. The expression of the extracellular matrix proteins, including collagens I, III, and IV, fibronectin I, and tenascin C, also varied markedly among the mouse strains, as did the activities of total superoxide dismutase (SOD) and manganese-SOD (Mn-SOD or SOD2). These data suggest that the response to O2 depends, in part, on the genetic background and that some of the strains analyzed can be used to identify specific loci and genes underlying the response to O2.

The transcriptional response to lipopolysaccharide reveals a role for interferon-gamma in lung neutrophil recruitment.

Neutrophil recruitment to the lung after lipopolysaccharide (LPS; endotoxin) inhalation is primarily dependent on Toll-like receptor 4 (Tlr4) signaling, because it is virtually absent in mice deficient in Tlr4. However, among strains wild type for Tlr4, the magnitude of neutrophil recruitment to the lung after LPS inhalation is variable, suggesting the involvement of genes other than Tlr4. To identify genes associated with the inflammatory response to inhaled LPS, we evaluated the transcriptional response in lungs of 12 inbred strains of mice, 8 which are wild type for Tlr4 and 4 of which lack functional Tlr4. Using the promoter integration in microarray analysis algorithm, we scanned our gene list for transcription factor-binding sites significantly overrepresented among Tlr4 wild-type strains with high neutrophil influx in the lung after LPS inhalation. This analysis identified the interferon (IFN)-stimulated response element (ISRE) as the most overrepresented transcription factor (present in 24% of the promoters) associated with the neutrophil influx to the lower respiratory tract. To test the validity of this observation, we evaluated IFN-gamma-deficient mice and found that the presence of IFN-gamma is essential for robust neutrophil recruitment to the lower respiratory tract and modulation of key regulatory cytokines and chemokines after LPS inhalation. In conclusion, using a genomic approach, we identified the ISRE as a transcriptional element associated with the neutrophil response to inhaled LPS and demonstrated for the first time that IFN-gamma plays a critical role in LPS-induced neutrophil recruitment to the lower airways.