Role of the Innate Immune Response in Glomerular Disease Pathogenesis: Focus on Podocytes.

Accumulating evidence indicates that inflammatory and immunologic processes play a significant role in the development and progression of glomerular diseases. Podocytes, the terminally differentiated epithelial cells, are crucial for maintaining the integrity of the glomerular filtration barrier. Once injured, podocytes cannot regenerate, leading to progressive proteinuric glomerular diseases. However, emerging evidence suggests that podocytes not only maintain the glomerular filtration barrier and are important targets of immune responses but also exhibit many features of immune-like cells, where they are involved in the modulation of the activity of innate and adaptive immunity. This dual role of podocytes may lead to the discovery and development of new therapeutic targets for treating glomerular diseases. This review aims to provide an overview of the innate immunity mechanisms involved in podocyte injury and the progression of proteinuric glomerular diseases.

Simultaneous Heart and Kidney Transplantation: A Systematic Review and Proportional Meta-Analysis of Its Characteristics and Long-Term Variables.

Patients with end-stage heart disease who undergo a heart transplant frequently have simultaneous kidney insufficiency, therefore simultaneous heart and kidney transplantation is an option and it is necessary to understand its characteristics and long-term variables. The recipient characteristics and operative and long-term variables were assessed in a meta-analysis. A total of 781 studies were screened, and 33 were thoroughly reviewed. 15 retrospective cohort studies and 376 patients were included. The recipient's mean age was 51.1 years (95% CI 48.52-53.67) and 84% (95% CI 80-87) were male. 71% (95% CI 59-83) of the recipients were dialysis dependent. The most common indication was ischemic cardiomyopathy [47% (95% CI 41-53)] and cardiorenal syndrome [22% (95% CI 9-35)]. Also, 33% (95% CI 20-46) of the patients presented with delayed graft function. During the mean follow-up period of 67.49 months (95% CI 45.64-89.33), simultaneous rejection episodes of both organ allografts were described in 5 cases only. Overall survival was 95% (95% CI 88-100) at 30 days, 81% (95% CI 76-86) at 1 year, 79% (95% CI 71-87) at 3, and 71% (95% CI 59-83) at 5 years. Simultaneous heart and kidney transplantation is an important option for concurrent cardiac and renal dysfunction and has acceptable rejection and survival rates.

Long-term effects of average calcineurin inhibitor trough levels (over time) on renal function in a prospectively followed cohort of 150 kidney transplant recipients.

More favorable clinical outcomes with medium-term follow-up have been reported among kidney transplant recipients receiving maintenance therapy consisting of "reduced-tacrolimus (TAC) dosing," mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), and low-dose corticosteroids. However, it is not clear whether long-term maintenance therapy with reduced-calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) dosing still leads to reduced renal function. A prospectively followed cohort of 150 kidney transplant recipients randomized to receive TAC/sirolimus (SRL) versus TAC/MMF versus cyclosporine microemulsion (CSA)/SRL, plus low-dose maintenance corticosteroids, now has 20 years of post-transplant follow-up. Average CNI trough levels over time among patients who were still alive with functioning grafts at 60, 120, and 180 months post-transplant were determined and ranked from smallest-to-largest for both TAC and CSA. Stepwise linear regression was used to determine whether these ranked average trough levels were associated with the patient's estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) at those times, particularly after controlling for other significant multivariable predictors. Experiencing biopsy-proven acute rejection (BPAR) and older donor age were the two most significant multivariable predictors of poorer eGFR at 60, 120, and 180 months post-transplant (p < 000001 and 0.000003 for older donor age at 60 and 120 months; p = 0.00008 and <0.000001 for previous BPAR at 60 and 120 months). Assignment to CSA also implied a significantly poorer eGFR (but with less magnitudes of effect) in multivariable analysis at 60 and 120 months (p = 0.01 and 0.002). Higher ranked average CNI trough levels had no association with eGFR at any timepoint in either univariable or multivariable analysis (p > 0.70). Long-term maintenance therapy with reduced-CNI dosing does not appear to cause reduced renal function.

The podocyte: glomerular sentinel at the crossroads of innate and adaptive immunity.

Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) is a common glomerular disorder that manifests clinically with the nephrotic syndrome and has a propensity to recur following kidney transplantation. The pathophysiology and therapies available to treat FSGS currently remain elusive. Since the podocyte appears to be the target of apparent circulating factor(s) that lead to recurrence of proteinuria following kidney transplantation, this article is focused on the podocyte. In the context of kidney transplantation, the performance of pre- and post-reperfusion biopsies, and the establishment of in vitro podocyte liquid biopsies/assays allow for the development of clinically relevant studies of podocyte biology. This has given insight into new pathways, involving novel targets in innate and adaptive immunity, such as SMPDL3b, cGAS-STING, and B7-1. Elegant experimental studies suggest that the successful clinical use of rituximab and abatacept, two immunomodulating agents, in our case series, may be due to direct effects on the podocyte, in addition to, or perhaps distinct from their immunosuppressive functions. Thus, tissue biomarker-directed therapy may provide a rational approach to validate the mechanism of disease and allow for the development of new therapeutics for FSGS. This report highlights recent progress in the field and emphasizes the importance of kidney transplantation and recurrent FSGS (rFSGS) as a platform for the study of primary FSGS.

Benefit of B7-1 staining and abatacept for treatment-resistant post-transplant focal segmental glomerulosclerosis in a predominantly pediatric cohort: time for a reappraisal.

BACKGROUND: Primary FSGS manifests with nephrotic syndrome and may recur following KT. Failure to respond to conventional therapy after recurrence results in poor outcomes. Evaluation of podocyte B7-1 expression and treatment with abatacept (a B7-1 antagonist) has shown promise but remains controversial. METHODS: From 2012 to 2020, twelve patients developed post-KT FSGS with nephrotic range proteinuria, failed conventional therapy, and were treated with abatacept. Nine/twelve (< 21 years old) experienced recurrent FSGS; three adults developed de novo FSGS, occurring from immediately, up to 8 years after KT. KT biopsies were stained for B7-1. RESULTS: Nine KTRs (75%) responded to abatacept. Seven of nine KTRs were B7-1 positive and responded with improvement/resolution of proteinuria. Two patients with rFSGS without biopsies resolved proteinuria after abatacept. Pre-treatment UPCR was 27.0 ± 20.4 (median 13, range 8-56); follow-up UPCR was 0.8 ± 1.3 (median 0.2, range 0.07-3.9, p < 0.004). Two patients who were B7-1 negative on multiple KT biopsies did not respond to abatacept and lost graft function. One patient developed proteinuria while receiving belatacept, stained B7-1 positive, but did not respond to abatacept. CONCLUSIONS: Podocyte B7-1 staining in biopsies of KTRs with post-transplant FSGS identifies a subset of patients who may benefit from abatacept. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Mitochondrial Contribution to Inflammation in Diabetic Kidney Disease.

Diabetes is the leading cause of chronic kidney disease worldwide. Despite the burden, the factors contributing to the development and progression of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) remain to be fully elucidated. In recent years, increasing evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction is a pathological mediator in DKD as the kidney is a highly metabolic organ rich in mitochondria. Furthermore, low grade chronic inflammation also contributes to the progression of DKD, and several inflammatory biomarkers have been reported as prognostic markers to risk-stratify patients for disease progression and all-cause mortality. Interestingly, the term "sterile inflammation" appears to be used in the context of DKD describing the development of intracellular inflammation in the absence of bacterial or viral pathogens. Therefore, a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation in DKD exists and is a hot topic in both basic research and clinical investigations. This review summarizes how mitochondria contribute to sterile inflammation in renal cells in DKD.

Graft Failure Due to Nonadherence among 150 Prospectively-Followed Kidney Transplant Recipients at 18 Years Post-transplant: Our Results and Review of the Literature.

Background: We previously reported that graft failure due to nonadherence (GFNA) was a major cause of graft loss in kidney transplantation. Here, among 150 prospectively-followed kidney transplant recipients at 18 years post-transplant, we provide: updated (longer-term) estimates of cause-specific graft loss probabilities, risk factors for developing GFNA, and detailed characterizations of patients' overt nonadherent (NA) behavior, including timing, extent, and clinical consequences. Methods: Determination of the patient becoming NA in taking his/her immunosuppressive medications, and the underlying cause of graft loss, were determined prospectively by the attending physicians. For never-functioning-graft, GFNA, GF due to causes other than NA (Other GF), and death with a functioning graft (DWFG), cumulative incidence functions were used to estimate the cumulative probabilities of cause-specific graft loss. Cox stepwise regression was used to determine significant multivariable predictors for the hazard rate of developing GFNA. Results: GFNA was a major cause of graft loss (22/150 patients), particularly among African-American and Hispanic recipients <50 years of age-at-transplant (20/56 experienced GFNA), with estimated percentages of such patients ever developing GFNA ranging between 36.9 and 41.5%. These patients were also at a higher risk of developing Other GF. For the remaining patients (2/94 experienced GFNA), estimated percentages of ever-developing GFNA were much lower (range: 0.0−6.7%). The major cause of graft loss among recipients ≥50 years of age was DWFG; GFNA rarely occurred among older recipients. In 21/22 GFNA patients, NA behavior lasted continuously from the time of developing NA until GFNA. In total, 28/150 patients became NA, and 67.9% (19/28) occurred beyond 36 months post-transplant. A total of 25 of 28 NA patients (89.3%) developed biopsy-proven acute rejection and/or chronic rejection that was directly attributed to the NA behavior. Lastly, 25/28 admitted to NA behavior, with financial and psychological components documented in 71.4% (20/28) and 96.4% (27/28) of NA cases, respectively. Conclusions: These results highlight the importance of performing serial monitoring of patients for overt NA behavior throughout their post-transplant follow-up. Financial and psychological components to NA behavior need to be simultaneously addressed with the goal of achieving complete avoidance/elimination of NA behavior among higher risk patients.

International Survey of Clinical Monitoring Practices in Pancreas and Islet Transplantation.

BACKGROUND: The long-term outcomes of both pancreas and islet allotransplantation have been compromised by difficulties in the detection of early graft dysfunction at a time when a clinical intervention can prevent further deterioration and preserve allograft function. The lack of standardized strategies for monitoring pancreas and islet allograft function prompted an international survey established by an International Pancreas and Islet Transplant Association/European Pancreas and Islet Transplant Association working group. METHODS: A global survey was administered to 24 pancreas and 18 islet programs using Redcap. The survey addressed protocolized and for-cause immunologic and metabolic monitoring strategies following pancreas and islet allotransplantation. All invited programs completed the survey. RESULTS: The survey identified that in both pancreas and islet allograft programs, protocolized clinical monitoring practices included assessing body weight, fasting glucose/C-peptide, hemoglobin A1c, and donor-specific antibody. Protocolized monitoring in islet transplant programs relied on the addition of mixed meal tolerance test, continuous glucose monitoring, and autoantibody titers. In the setting of either suspicion for rejection or serially increasing hemoglobin A1c/fasting glucose levels postpancreas transplant, Doppler ultrasound, computed tomography, autoantibody titers, and pancreas graft biopsy were identified as adjunctive strategies to protocolized monitoring studies. No additional assays were identified in the setting of serially increasing hemoglobin A1c levels postislet transplantation. CONCLUSIONS: This international survey identifies common immunologic and metabolic monitoring strategies utilized for protocol and for cause following pancreas and islet transplantation. In the absence of any formal studies to assess the efficacy of immunologic and metabolic testing to detect early allograft dysfunction, it can serve as a guidance document for developing monitoring algorithms following beta-cell replacement.

How to Deal With Kidney Retransplantation-Second, Third, Fourth, and Beyond.

Kidney transplantation is the best health option for patients with end-stage kidney disease. Ideally, a kidney transplant would last for the lifetime of each recipient. However, depending on the age of the recipient and details of the kidney transplant, there may be a need for a second, third, fourth, or even more kidney transplants. In this overview, the outcome of multiple kidney transplants for an individual is presented. Key issues include surgical approach and immunologic concerns. Included in the surgical approach is an analysis of transplant nephrectomy, with indications, timing, and immunologic impact. Allograft thrombosis, whether related to donor or recipient factors merits investigation to prevent it from happening again. Other posttransplant events such as rejection, viral illness (polyomavirus hominis type I), recurrent disease (focal segmental glomerulosclerosis), and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease may lead to the need for retransplantation. The pediatric recipient is especially likely to need a subsequent kidney transplant. Finally, noncompliance/nonadherence can affect both adults and children. Innovative approaches may reduce the need for retransplantation in the future.

Midline Rotation of the Right Renal Hilum During Hand-Assisted Laparoscopic Living Donor Nephrectomy.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Laparoscopic living donor nephrectomy (LLDN) of the right kidney is currently considered as part of standard of care; however, dealing with the renal hilum when performing ligation/division of its renal vessels is still a main concern. Here, we describe a simple-to-perform technique, i.e., flipping the fully mobilized right kidney to the midline so that the renal artery becomes anteriorly, which offers better visualization and easier dissection of the renal vessels (achieving maximized lengths) when performing hand-assisted LLDN of the right kidney. METHODS: Living donors who underwent hand-assisted LLDN of the right kidney, along with their respective renal transplant recipients, were included in this report. Donor characteristics included renal artery and vein lengths; recipient characteristics included creatinine at months 12 - 36. Graft vein and arterial anastomosis data were also reported. RESULTS: Nineteen living donors and 19 recipients, with median donor and recipient ages being 39 (24 - 60) and 53 (3 - 81) years, respectively, were included. None of the 38 patients had intra- or postoperative complications. Donor renal vein was anastomosed to the right external iliac vein (n = 16), right common iliac vein (n = 2), and inferior vena cava (n = 1). Gonadal vein (n = 1) and deceased donor iliac vein (n = 2) were used to increase the right renal vein length in 3 cases. Four donor kidneys had 2 arteries reconstructed side by side. None of the recipients developed any vascular or urological complications. CONCLUSIONS: The laparoscopic technique described is safe and allows better visualization of the right hilum, mainly the renal artery, and helps in stapling the renal vein and renal artery.

First World Consensus Conference on pancreas transplantation: Part II - recommendations.

The First World Consensus Conference on Pancreas Transplantation provided 49 jury deliberations regarding the impact of pancreas transplantation on the treatment of diabetic patients, and 110 experts' recommendations for the practice of pancreas transplantation. The main message from this consensus conference is that both simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantation (SPK) and pancreas transplantation alone can improve long-term patient survival, and all types of pancreas transplantation dramatically improve the quality of life of recipients. Pancreas transplantation may also improve the course of chronic complications of diabetes, depending on their severity. Therefore, the advantages of pancreas transplantation appear to clearly surpass potential disadvantages. Pancreas after kidney transplantation increases the risk of mortality only in the early period after transplantation, but is associated with improved life expectancy thereafter. Additionally, preemptive SPK, when compared to SPK performed in patients undergoing dialysis, appears to be associated with improved outcomes. Time on dialysis has negative prognostic implications in SPK recipients. Increased long-term survival, improvement in the course of diabetic complications, and amelioration of quality of life justify preferential allocation of kidney grafts to SPK recipients. Audience discussions and live voting are available online at the following URL address: http://mediaeventi.unipi.it/category/1st-world-consensus-conference-of-pancreas-transplantation/246.

Case Report: Uroenteric Fistula in a Pediatric-en-bloc Kidney Transplant Manifests as Deceptive Watery Diarrhea and Normal Anion Gap Acidosis.

Introduction: The diagnosis of a post-surgical uroenteric fistula can be challenging and may be delayed for months after symptoms begin. A normal anion gap metabolic acidosis has been reported in up to 100% of patients after ureterosigmoidostomy, and bladder substitution using small bowel and/or colonic segments. Here, we describe a rare case of a pediatric patient who developed a uroenteric fistula from the transplant ureters into the small bowel, after an en-bloc kidney transplantation resulting in profound acidosis and deceptive watery diarrhea. Case Presentation: The patient is an 8-year-old girl with end stage kidney disease (ESKD) secondary to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. Through a right retroperitoneal approach, she underwent a right native nephrectomy and a pediatric deceased donor en-bloc kidney transplant including two separate ureters. One month later, she had a renal allograft biopsy for suspected rejection. During the week after the biopsy, she experienced abdominal pain followed by watery diarrhea and metabolic acidosis requiring continuous bicarbonate/acetate infusions. An extensive gastro-intestinal evaluation for the cause of the diarrhea including endoscopy was inconclusive. The urine output decreased to <500 ml daily; although, the kidney function remained normal. After 2 weeks of unexplained watery diarrhea a magnetic resonance urogram with contrast was performed which demonstrated extravasation of urine from both ureters with fistulization into the small bowel. She underwent corrective surgery which identified the fistulous tract, which was resected and both ureters were re-implanted. The diarrhea and acidosis resolved, and she has maintained normal renal allograft function for over 1 year. Conclusion: An important aspect in the early diagnosis of a uroenteric fistula is the sudden onset of severe hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis that results when urine is diverted into the intestinal tract. The mechanism is similar to that described in cases of urinary diversions and/or bladder augmentation using the intestine. Important diagnostic tools are the measurements of solute excretion and pH in the urine as compared to the "watery diarrhea" or bowel output. Summary: We describe a case of a uroenteric fistula in a pediatric-en-bloc kidney transplant patient that went undiagnosed for almost 3 weeks due to the deceptive nature of the watery diarrhea which was actually urine. A uroenteric fistula should be considered in the differential diagnosis of diarrhea and hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis as a complication of kidney transplant. The simultaneous comparison of stool and urine pH and solute excretions may lead to the diagnosis, appropriate imaging and surgical intervention.

When is it safe to perform abdominal transplantation in patients with prior SARS-CoV-2 infection: A case series.

BACKGROUND: The Coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19) pandemic has negatively impacted worldwide organ transplantation. However, there is limited information on recipients transplanted after SARS-CoV-2 infection. A full understanding of this scenario is required, as transplantation is a life-saving procedure and COVID-19 remains an ongoing threat. METHODS: Abdominal organ transplant recipients diagnosed with COVID-19 prior to transplantation were identified by chart review and clinical data were collected. The primary outcome was the transplant outcome including graft loss, rejection and death, and reactivation of infection post-transplant. RESULTS: We identified 14 patients who received abdominal organ transplants after symptomatic PCR confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection; four patients had a positive PCR at the time of admission for transplantation. The median time of follow-up was 79 (22-190) days. One recipient with negative PCR before transplant tested positive 9 days after transplant. One of 14 transplanted patients developed disseminated mold infection and died 86 days after transplant. During the follow-up, only one patient developed rejection; thirteen patients had favorable graft outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: We were able to perform abdominal transplantation for patients with COVID-19 before transplant, even with positive PCR at the time of transplant. Larger studies are needed to determine the time to safe transplant after SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Identification and characterisation of tertiary lymphoid organs in human type 1 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We and others previously reported the presence of tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) in the pancreas of NOD mice, where they play a role in the development of type 1 diabetes. Our aims here are to investigate whether TLOs are present in the pancreas of individuals with type 1 diabetes and to characterise their distinctive features, in comparison with TLOs present in NOD mouse pancreases, in order to interpret their functional significance. METHODS: Using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy, we examined the extracellular matrix (ECM) and cellular constituents of pancreatic TLOs from individuals with ongoing islet autoimmunity in three distinct clinical settings of type 1 diabetes: at risk of diabetes; at/after diagnosis; and in the transplanted pancreas with recurrent diabetes. Comparisons were made with TLOs from 14-week-old NOD mice, which contain islets exhibiting mild to heavy leucocyte infiltration. We determined the frequency of the TLOs in human type 1diabetes with insulitis and investigated the presence of TLOs in relation to age of onset, disease duration and disease severity. RESULTS: TLOs were identified in preclinical and clinical settings of human type 1 diabetes. The main characteristics of these TLOs, including the cellular and ECM composition of reticular fibres (RFs), the presence of high endothelial venules and immune cell subtypes detected, were similar to those observed for TLOs from NOD mouse pancreases. Among 21 donors with clinical type 1 diabetes who exhibited insulitis, 12 had TLOs and had developed disease at younger age compared with those lacking TLOs. Compartmentalised TLOs with distinct T cell and B cell zones were detected in donors with short disease duration. Overall, TLOs were mainly associated with insulin-containing islets and their frequency decreased with increasing severity of beta cell loss. Parallel studies in NOD mice further revealed some differences in so far as regulatory T cells were essentially absent from human pancreatic TLOs and CCL21 was not associated with RFs. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: We demonstrate a novel feature of pancreas pathology in type 1 diabetes. TLOs represent a potential site of autoreactive effector T cell generation in islet autoimmunity and our data from mouse and human tissues suggest that they disappear once the destructive process has run its course. Thus, TLOs may be important for type 1 diabetes progression.

Randomized trial of 3 maintenance regimens (TAC/SRL vs. TAC/MMF vs. CSA/SRL) with low-dose corticosteroids in primary kidney transplantation: 18-year results.

A randomized trial of 150 primary kidney transplant recipients, initiated in May 2000, compared tacrolimus (TAC)/sirolimus (SRL) vs. TAC/mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) vs. cyclosporine microemulsion (CSA)/SRL (N = 50/group). All patients received daclizumab induction and maintenance corticosteroids. With current median follow-up of 18 years post-transplant, biopsy-proven acute rejection (BPAR) occurred less often in TAC/MMF (26% (13/50)), vs. the TAC/SRL (36% (18/50)) and CSA/SRL (34% (17/50)) arms combined (p = .23), with statistical significance favoring TAC/MMF (p = .05) after controlling for the multivariable (Cox model) effects of recipient age, recipient race/ethnicity, and donor age. First BPAR rate was clearly more favorable for TAC/MMF after stratifying patients by having 0-1 (N = 72) vs. 2-3 (N = 78) unfavorable baseline characteristics (recipient age <50 years, African American or Hispanic recipient, and donor age ≥50 years) (p = .02). Mean estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), using the CKD-EPI formula, was consistently higher for TAC/MMF, particularly after controlling for the multivariable effect of donor age, throughout the first 96 months post-transplant (p ≤ .008). These differences were translated into an observed more favorable graft failure due to immunologic cause (CAI/TG) rate for TAC/MMF (p = .06), although no significant differences in overall death-uncensored graft loss were observed. Previously reported significantly higher study drug discontinuation and requirement for antilipid therapy rates in the SRL-assigned arms were maintained over time. Overall, these results at 18 years post-transplant more definitively show that TAC/MMF should be the gold standard for achieving optimal, long-term maintenance immunosuppression in kidney transplantation.

Kidney Salvage with Renal Artery Reconstruction after Blunt Traumatic Injury.

Renal artery injury from blunt abdominal trauma is a rare condition that is typically managed nonoperatively in hemodynamically stable patients. Revascularization can be achieved by stenting or surgical reconstruction of the renal artery. All attempts at revascularization should minimize warm ischemic time. Here, we discuss a patient postmotor vehicle accident who presented to Ryder Trauma Center with intra-abdominal bleeding. He underwent emergency exploratory laparotomy with splenectomy and abdominal packing. Postoperative CT scan revealed a contrast nonenhancing left kidney. The patient then returned to the operating room and underwent in situ renal artery reconstruction after >4 hours of warm ischemia. The patient survived a 2-month hospital course and was discharged home after prolonged in-hospital stay and intensive care treatment. Nuclear medicine scan showed scarring and atrophy of the reattached kidney with 16.3% of overall function attributed to the affected kidney. This case shows that patients with renal artery injury can be managed operatively with arterial reconstruction. Reducing warm ischemic time is critical in preserving kidney function.

Pretransplant Levels of C-Reactive Protein, Soluble TNF Receptor-1, and CD38+HLADR+ CD8 T Cells Predict Risk of Allograft Rejection in HIV+ Kidney Transplant Recipients.

INTRODUCTION: HIV-positive (HIV+) kidney transplant recipients exhibit a 2- to 3-fold increased risk of allograft rejection. Dysregulated immune activation in HIV infection persists despite successful antiretroviral therapy and is associated with non-AIDS morbidity, including renal disease. We hypothesized that the pathological levels of inflammation and immune activation associated with chronic HIV infection could have clinical utility in the prediction of rejection in HIV+ kidney recipients. METHODS: Prospective cohort study of 22 HIV-negative (HIV-; donor) to HIV+ (recipient) kidney transplant recipients who underwent biomarker assessment pretransplant and were subsequently followed for development of acute rejection. Plasma levels of markers of inflammation (soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 [sTNF-R1] and C-reactive protein [CRP]) and microbial translocation (soluble CD14 and lipopolysaccharide) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or chromogenic endpoint assay. Levels of activated (CD38+HLADR+) CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and T regulatory cells (CD4+CD25highFoxP3+) were measured by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Among the biomarkers evaluated, only the pretransplant levels of sTNF-R1, CRP, and frequencies of CD38+HLADR+ CD8 T cells, were found to be at significantly higher levels among patients who experienced biopsy-proven acute rejection. Confirming our hypothesis, patients with high pretransplant levels of sTNF-R1 or activated CD8+ T cells had a significantly increased 200-day cumulative incidence of biopsy-proven acute rejection (0 vs. 38% for both; P = 0.01). Similarly, pretransplant CRP levels higher than 5 µg/ml were associated with increased risk of acute rejection within the first 6 months post-transplant (0 vs. 43%; P = 0.01). CONCLUSION: Biomarker-based identification of HIV+ recipients at increased risk for rejection might facilitate individualized induction immunosuppression regimens in this vulnerable patient population.