Toxoplasma gondii: mechanism of the parasitostatic action of 6-thioxanthine.

In contrast to the cytocidal effect of 6-thiopurines on mammalian cells, the action of 6-thioxanthine on Toxoplasma gondii was only parasitostatic. 6-Thioxanthine was a substrate of the parasite's hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase. That enzyme converted 6-thioxanthine to 6-thioxanthosine 5'-phosphate which accumulated to near millimolar concentrations within parasites incubated intracellularly in medium containing the drug. 6-Thioxanthosine 5'-phosphate was the only detectable metabolite of 6-thioxanthine. The absence of 6-thioguanine nucleotides explains the lack of a parasitocidal effect because the incorporation of 6-thiodeoxyguanosine triphosphate into DNA is the mechanism of the lethal effect of 6-thiopurines on mammalian cells. Extracellular parasites that had accumulated a high concentration of 6-thioxanthosine 5'-phosphate incorporated more labeled hypoxanthine or xanthine into their nucleotide pools than did control parasites. The basis for this increased nucleobase salvage remains unexplained. It was not due to up-regulation of hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase and could not be explained by reduced use of labeled nucleotides for nucleic acid synthesis. Extracellular parasites that had accumulated a high concentration of 6-thioxanthosine 5'-phosphate used labeled hypoxanthine almost entirely to make adenine nucleotides while control parasites made both adenine and guanine nucleotides. Both extracellular parasites that had accumulated a high concentration of 6-thioxanthosine 5'-phosphate and control parasites efficiently used labeled xanthine to make guanine nucleotides. These observations suggested that inosine 5'-phosphate-dehydrogenase was inhibited while guanosine 5'-phosphate synthase was not. Assay of inosine 5'-phosphate dehydrogenase in soluble extracts of T. gondii confirmed that 6-thioxanthosine 5'-phosphate was an inhibitor. We conclude that 6-thioxanthine blocks the growth of T. gondii by a depletion a guanine nucleotides.

Immune responses induced by gene gun or intramuscular injection of DNA vaccines that express immunogenic regions of the serine repeat antigen from Plasmodium falciparum.

The liver- and blood-stage-expressed serine repeat antigen (SERA) of Plasmodium falciparum is a candidate protein for a human malaria vaccine. We compared the immune responses induced in mice immunized with SERA-expressing plasmid DNA vaccines delivered by intramuscular (i.m.) injection or delivered intradermally by Gene Gun immunization. Mice were immunized with a pcdna3 plasmid encoding the entire 47-kDa domain of SERA (amino acids 17 to 382) or the N-terminal domain (amino acids 17 to 110) of SERA. Minimal antibody responses were detected following DNA vaccination with the N-terminal domain of SERA, suggesting that the N-terminal domain alone is not highly immunogenic by this route of vaccine delivery. Immunization of mice by Gene Gun delivery of the 47-kDa domain of SERA elicited a significantly higher serum antibody titer to the antigen than immunization of mice by i.m. injection with the same plasmid did. The predominant isotype subclass of the antibodies elicited to the SERA protein following i.m. and Gene Gun immunizations with SERA plasmid DNA was immunoglobulin G1. Coimmunization of mice with SERA plasmid DNA and a plasmid expressing the hepatitis B surface antigen (pCMV-s) by the i.m. route resulted in higher anti-SERA titers than those generated in mice immunized with the SERA DNA plasmid alone. Vaccination with DNA may provide a viable alternative or may be used in conjunction with protein-based subunit vaccines to maximize the efficacy of a human malaria vaccine that includes immunogenic regions of the SERA protein.

Stable transformation of Toxoplasma gondii based on a pyrimethamine resistant trifunctional dihydrofolate reductase-cytosine deaminase-thymidylate synthase gene that confers sensitivity to 5-fluorocytosine.

To improve genetic models available for the analysis of apicomplexan protozoan parasites, bacterial sequences encoding the 427 amino acid cytosine deaminase (CD) gene were fused, in-frame, to an engineered linker domain of the high level pyrimethamine resistant form of the parasite bifunctional dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase (DHFR-TS) gene. Toxoplasma gondii was transformed with the plasmid containing the fused pyrimethamine resistant dihydrofolate reductase-cytosine deaminase-thymidylate synthase (DHFRm2m3-CD-TS) gene and parasites were selected in a high level of pyrimethamine. Transfected parasites that acquired resistance to pyrimethamine were cloned and evaluated for expression of the CD genetic marker. CD transgenic parasites acquired a high sensitivity to 5-fluorocytosine due to the intraparasitic conversion of this non-toxic prodrug to the cytotoxic compound 5-fluorouracil. Exogenously supplied cytosine or uracil rescued the growth of CD transgenic T. gondii parasites that were cultured in the presence of cytotoxic concentrations of 5-fluorouracil or 5-fluorocytosine. Bacterial CD fused to the pyrimethamine resistant DHFR-TS marker provides a novel genetic tool for new positive and negative genetic selection strategies in several protozoan parasites. An advantage of the CD genetic marker is that it is derived from a bacterial gene and can therefore be used in nearly any parasite genetic background for negative selection. This novel system should facilitate new approaches for the development of improved model genetic systems for the biological investigation of apicomplexan parasites.

Plasmodium falciparum: an epitope within a highly conserved region of the 47-kDa amino-terminal domain of the serine repeat antigen is a target of parasite-inhibitory antibodies.

Previously, the Plasmodium falciparum serine repeat antigen has been shown to be protective in primate models of malaria immunity and also to be a target of in vitro parasite-inhibitory antibodies. To further define parasite-inhibitory epitopes a series of deletions from the amino-terminal 47-kDa domain of the serine repeat antigen (SERA) were constructed as glutathione-S-transferase fusion proteins. Several GST-SERA fusion proteins were used to vaccinate mice with Freund's adjuvant and the resulting immune sera were used to assay for the inhibition of P. falciparum invasion of erythrocytes in vitro. The minimal epitope shown to be the target of invasion-blocking antibodies was SERA amino acids 17-165. Additional GST-SERA deletion constructs of the 47-kDa domain were developed and evaluated for reactivity, by Western immunoblot analysis, with a parasite-inhibitory murine monoclonal antibody (mAb 43E5), a parasite-inhibitory pooled goat polyclonal sera, and a pooled human Nigerian immune serum. The parasite-inhibitory epitope defined by mAb 43E5 was mapped to SERA amino acids 17-110 and, at least, part of the epitope was defined to include amino acids in the region of amino acids 59-72. The parasite-inhibitory epitope recognized by mAb 43E5 appears to be well conserved between diverse geographical isolates of P. falciparum. The results have relevance for malaria vaccine development and suggest that an appropriately designed recombinant SERA antigen produced from a synthetic gene in Escherichia coli may be an effective component of a candidate malaria vaccine.

Analysis of stage-specific transcripts of the Plasmodium falciparum serine repeat antigen (SERA) gene and transcription from the SERA locus.

We evaluated the stage-specific transcription and processing of serine repeat antigen (SERA) messenger RNA to further examine mechanisms regulating gene expression in Plasmodium falciparum. SERA mRNA was expressed exclusively in trophozoite and schizont stages. Transcription from the SERA gene was first detected between 24 and 29 h following erythrocyte invasion. The transcript mapping data revealed heterogeneity of the SERA mRNA 5' and 3' ends. RNA sequencing revealed that SERA transcripts were not generated by a trans-splicing mechanism. A new SERA gene, SERA3, was identified 1.8 kb upstream of SERA. The direction of transcription of the SERA locus genes, SERA3, SERA, and SERA2, was mapped relative to the location of other chromosome 2 genetic markers. The SERA locus and the closely linked MSA2 locus were found to be transcriptionally regulated in a coordinate fashion. Collectively, the results of these experiments show that parallel and coordinately controlled transcription units reside on chromosome 2. These results implicate a novel mechanism of transcriptional control in Plasmodium.

Soluble normal and mutated DNA sequences from single-copy genes in human blood.

Healthy individuals have soluble (extracellular) DNA in their blood, and increased amounts are present in cancer patients. Here we report the detection of specific sequences of the cystic fibrosis and K-ras genes in plasma DNA from normal donors by amplification with the polymerase chain reaction. In addition, mutated K-ras sequences are identified by polymerase chain reaction utilizing allele-specific primers in the plasma or serum from three patients with pancreatic carcinoma that contain mutated K-ras genes. The mutations are confirmed by direct sequencing. These results indicate that sequences of single-copy genes can be identified in normal plasma and that the sequences of mutated oncogenes can be detected and identified with allele-specific amplification by polymerase chain reaction in plasma or serum from patients with malignant tumors containing identical mutated genes. Mutated oncogenes in plasma and serum may represent tumor markers that could be useful for diagnosis, determining response to treatment, and predicting prognosis.

Molecular characterization of the largest subunit of Plasmodium falciparum RNA polymerase I.

Plasmodium species possess developmentally regulated ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. This report describes the expression and gene structure of the largest subunit of P. falciparum RNA polymerase I (RNAPI), which is responsible for the synthesis of rRNA. The RNAPI largest subunit gene was present as a single copy gene on chromosome 9. Three exons encode the 2910-amino acid RNAPI polypeptide (340 140 Da). A comparison of Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae nuclear RNAP largest subunits identified conserved amino acid positions and class-specific amino acid positions. Novel amino acid insertions were found between RNAPI conserved regions A and B (region A'), D and DE1 (region D'), DE2 and E (region DE2'), and F and G (region F'). Leucine zipper domains were found within regions D', DE2, and DE2'. A novel serine-rich repeat domain, a domain with homology to the C-terminal domain of eukaryotic upstream binding factor (UBF), and 4 highly conserved casein kinase II (CKII) Ser/Thr phosphorylation motifs were found within a 127-amino acid sub-region of enlarged region F'. The novel RNAPI serine-rich repeat contained a conserved motif, Ser-X3-Ser, which was also identified in the serine-rich repeat domains of the P. falciparum RNAPII and RNAPIII largest subunits, as well as within a highly homologous serine-rich repeat from trophozoite antigen R45. The results of this molecular analysis indicate that phosphorylation and dephosphorylation mechanisms regulate the activity of P. falciparum RNAPI.

Expression of Plasmodium falciparum lactate dehydrogenase in Escherichia coli.

A Plasmodium falciparum gene is described which encodes lactate dehydrogenase activity (P. falciparum LDH). The P. falciparum LDH gene contains no introns and is present in a single copy on chromosome 13. P. falciparum LDH was expressed in all asexual blood stages as a 1.6-kb mRNA. The predicted 316 amino acid protein coding region of P. falciparum LDH was inserted into the prokaryotic expression vector pKK223-3 and a 33-kDa protein having LDH activity was synthesized in Escherichia coli. P. falciparum LDH primary structure displays high amino acid similarity (50-57%) to vertebrate and bacterial LDH, but lacks the amino terminal extension observed in all vertebrate LDH. The majority of amino acid residues implicated in substrate and coenzyme binding and catalysis of other LDH are well conserved in P. falciparum LDH. However, several notable differences in amino acid composition were observed. P. falciparum LDH contained several distinctive single amino acid insertions and deletions compared to other LDH enzymes, and most remarkably, it contained a novel insertion of 5 amino acids within the conserved mobile loop region near arginine residue 109, a residue which is known to make contact with pyruvate in the ternary complex of other LDH. These results suggest that novel features of P. falciparum LDH primary structure may be correlated with previously characterized and distinctive kinetic, biochemical, immunochemical, and electrophoretic properties of P. falciparum LDH.

The primary structure of Plasmodium falciparum DNA polymerase delta is similar to drug sensitive delta-like viral DNA polymerases.

We report the isolation and sequencing of genomic DNA clones that encode the 1094-amino acid catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase delta from the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Protein sequence comparison to other DNA polymerases revealed the presence of six highly conserved regions found in alpha-like DNA polymerases from different prokaryotic, viral, and eukaryotic sources. Five additional regions of amino acid sequence similarity that are only conserved in delta and delta-like DNA polymerases, so far, were present in P. falciparum DNA polymerase delta. P. falciparum DNA polymerase delta was highly similar to both Saccharomyces cerevisiae DNA polymerase delta (DNA polymerase III; CDC2) and Epstein-Barr virus DNA polymerase at the amino acid sequence, and the predicted protein secondary structure levels. The gene that encodes DNA polymerase delta resides as a single copy on chromosome 10, and is expressed as a 4.5-kb mRNA during the trophozoite and schizont stages when parasite chromosomal DNA synthesis is active.

Characterization of the gene encoding the largest subunit of Plasmodium falciparum RNA polymerase III.

We report here the isolation, sequence analysis, structure, and expression of the gene encoding the largest subunit of RNA polymerase III (RPIII) from Plasmodium falciparum. The P. falciparum RPIII gene consists of 5 exons and 4 introns, is expressed in all of the asexual erythrocytic stages of the parasite as a 8.5-kb mRNA, and is present in a single copy on chromosome 13. The predicted 2339 amino acid residue RPIII subunit contained 5 regions that were conserved between different eukaryotic RPIII subunits, and 4 variable regions that separated the conserved regions. Three of the variable regions were greatly enlarged in comparison to the corresponding variable regions in other RPIII subunits. Variable region C' represented nearly one-third of the P. falciparum RPIII subunit (750 amino acid residues), included a unique repeated decapeptide sequence, and had some homology with yeast DNA topoisomerase II. Noteworthy amino acid sequences and structures were identified in both the conserved regions and in the enlarged variable regions, and their possible role(s) as domains that regulate RPIII enzyme activity is discussed.

Protective immunity induced in Aotus monkeys by recombinant SERA proteins of Plasmodium falciparum.

We describe the vaccination of Panamanian monkeys (Aotus sp.) with two recombinant blood stage antigens that each contain a portion of the N-terminal region of the SERA (serine repeat antigen) protein of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. We immunized with either a 262-amino-acid SERA fragment (SERA I) that contains amino acids 24 to 285 of the 989-amino-acid protein or a 483-amino-acid SERA fragment (SERA N) that contains amino acids 24 to 506 as part of a fusion protein with human gamma interferon. The recombinant proteins were shown to stimulate protective immunity when administered with complete and incomplete Freund adjuvant. Four of six immunized monkeys challenged by intravenous inoculation with blood stage P. falciparum developed parasitemias that were reduced by at least 1,000-fold. Two of six immunized monkeys developed parasitemias which were comparable to the lowest parasitemia in one of four controls and were 50- to 1,000-fold lower than in the other three controls.

Immunogenicity of recombinant Plasmodium falciparum SERA proteins in rodents.

We have expressed defined regions of the serine-repeat antigen (SERA) of the Honduras-1 strain of Plasmodium falciparum in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Amino-terminal domains of the natural SERA protein have been shown previously to be targets for parasite-inhibitory murine monoclonal antibodies. Two recombinant SERA antigens were selected for purification and immunological analysis. The first (SERA 1), corresponding to amino acids 24-285 of the natural SERA precursor, was expressed by the ubiquitin fusion method. This allowed for in vivo cleavage by endogenous yeast ubiquitin hydrolase, and subsequent isolation of the mature polypeptide. The second, larger protein (SERA N), encompassing amino acids 24-506, was expressed at only low levels using this system, but could be isolated in high yields when fused to human gamma-interferon (gamma-IFN). Each purified protein was used to immunize mice with either Freund's adjuvant or a muramyl tripeptide adjuvant that has been used in humans. Sera from immunized mice were shown to be capable of in vitro inhibition of invasion of erythrocytes by the Honduras-1 strain of P. falciparum. The results suggest that a recombinant SERA antigen may be an effective component of a candidate malaria vaccine.

The structure and role of RNA polymerases in Plasmodium.

During the past few years the characterization of several Plasmodium falciparum RNA polymerase subunits has revealed potentially significant differences between the corresponding subunits of the host and parasite enzymes(1-3). The largest subunits of P. falciparum RNA polymerase II and III contain enlarged variable domains that separate conserved domains in these subunits. The partially characterized beta and beta '-like subunits of an organellar P. falciparum RNA polymerase also appear to be distinct from the host RNA polymerases. In this review David Bzik discusses the structure and role of RNA polymerases in Plasmodium.

Mutant dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase genes in pyrimethamine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum with polymorphic chromosome duplications.

We have identified dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) gene point mutations and chromosomal changes in pyrimethamine-resistant mutants selected in vitro of Plasmodium falciparum strain FCR3. A pyrimethamine-resistant derivative of the pyrimethamine-sensitive strain FCR3, FCR3-D8, that had been grown in the absence of pyrimethamine for an extended time, was grown in two concentrations of pyrimethamine, and surviving drug-resistant parasites were subcloned. One selected mutant, FCR3-D81, that grew at 1 X 10(-6) M pyrimethamine, contained a single point mutation in the DHFR domain which caused an amino acid change (Phe to Ser) at amino acid 223, whereas another mutant, FCR3-D85, that grew at 5 X 10(-6) M pyrimethamine had that same mutation and an additional point mutation that changed amino acid 54 (Asp to Asn). The selection of FCR3-D85, whose nucleotide sequence was identical to that previously reported for FCR3-D8, confirmed that the original FCR3-D8 parasite population had changed during extended growth in vitro in the absence of drug pressure. FCR3-D81 and FCR3-D85 cells contained different pairs of polymorphic chromosomes that hybridized to a DHFR-TS probe as well as to three other chromosome 4 specific DNAs, indicating that at least part of chromosome 4 had been duplicated and that these parasites were aneuploid with 15 rather than 14 chromosomes. The mutant DHFR-TS genes were diploid. We consider the roles of the polymorphic chromosome duplications and DHFR point mutation(s) as causes of pyrimethamine resistance.

Plasmodium falciparum: analysis of chromosomes separated by contour-clamped homogenous electric fields.

We have established improved conditions for separating the chromosomes of Plasmodium falciparum by pulsed field gradient gel electrophoresis (PFG) using a contour-clamped homogenous electric field (CHEF) apparatus. Thirteen clearly separable chromosomal bands were reproducibly isolated from the strain FCR3 and their sizes have been determined. Evidence that indicates one band may contain two chromosomes is presented. The relationship between the PFG separable DNA and the number of unique chromosomes in P. falciparum is considered. We have established a relationship between the maximum resolvable sizes of the chromosomes and the pulse times. The chromosomal location of twenty-seven P. falciparum DNA probes is also reported.