Residence in coastal communities in adolescence and health in young adulthood: An 11-year follow-up of English UKHLS youth questionnaire respondents.

We used the UK Household Longitudinal Study to examine whether community type (inland or coastal) in adolescence (10-15 years) was associated with five adult health outcomes assessed over 11 waves of follow-up (2009-22). When the analyses were stratified on area deprivation, four of the five health outcomes - self-rated, long-standing illness, psychological distress and mental functioning - showed worse health in increasingly more deprived communities, and to a greater extent in the most deprived communities that are coastal. For all but self-rated health, associations were robust to additional adjustment for adolescent gender, ethnicity, household income, tenure, and life satisfaction.

SARS-CoV-2 vaccine uptake and risks of severe COVID-19 disease among people prescribed opioid agonist therapy in Scotland.

BACKGROUND: There is limited evidence quantifying the risk of severe COVID-19 disease among people with opioid dependence. We examined vaccine uptake and severe disease (admission to critical care or death with COVID-19) among individuals prescribed opioid agonist therapy (OAT). METHOD: A case-control design was used to examine vaccine uptake in those prescribed OAT compared with the general population, and the association between severe disease and OAT. In both analyses, 10 controls from the general population were matched (to each OAT recipient and COVID-19 case, respectively) according to socio-demographic factors. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate rate ratios (RR) for severe disease. RESULTS: Vaccine uptake was markedly lower in the OAT cohort (dose 1: 67%, dose 2: 53% and dose 3: 31%) compared with matched controls (76%, 72% and 57%, respectively). Those prescribed OAT within the last 5 years, compared with those not prescribed, had increased risk of severe COVID-19 (RR 3.38, 95% CI 2.75 to 4.15), particularly in the fourth wave (RR 6.58, 95% CI 4.20 to 10.32); adjustment for comorbidity and vaccine status attenuated this risk (adjusted RR (aRR) 2.43, 95% CI 1.95 to 3.02; wave 4 aRR 3.78, 95% CI 2.30 to 6.20). Increased risk was also observed for those prescribed OAT previously (>3 months ago) compared with recently (aRR 1.74, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.71). CONCLUSIONS: The widening gap in vaccine coverage for those prescribed OAT, compared with the general population, is likely to have exacerbated the risk of severe COVID-19 in this population over the pandemic. However, continued OAT use may have provided protection from severe COVID-19 among those with opioid dependence.

Reasons for why Medical Students Prefer Specific Sleep Management Strategies.

OBJECTIVES: Insomnia symptoms are common among medical students. This study explored the perspectives of medical students about which sleep management strategies to use. METHODS: Medical students responded to an online survey on their thoughts about the use of various sleep management strategies. RESULTS: Of the 828 respondents, 568 (69%) provided responses to questions about the most preferred strategies and 450 (54%) provided responses about their least preferred strategies. About 48.5% felt their insomnia symptoms were too mild to see a clinician and 23.9% did not think their symptoms warranted sleep medication. Over 40% of students could not avoid work before sleep, have consistent sleep/wake times, or engage in regular exercise because of their busy and inconsistent schedules. Approximately 40-60% could not improve their sleep environment (e.g. better heating and bed) because of the associated costs. Over 80% reported an inability to change their pre-sleep habits (e.g. using electronics close to bedtime, using bed for activities other than sleep or sex). Half of the students disliked relaxation techniques or felt they would not help. Around 30-50% did not believe that changing caffeine and/or alcohol intake would affect their sleep. CONCLUSIONS: Medical students may benefit from additional sleep education. Clinicians may need to discuss which strategies individual students prefer and modify their recommendations accordingly.

Measuring Sodium from Discretionary Salt: Comparison of Methods.

(1) Background: The best method to assess discretionary salt intake in population surveys has not been established. (2) Methods: This secondary analysis compared three different methods of measuring sodium intake from discretionary salt in a convenience sample of 109 adults in New Zealand. Participants replaced their household salt with lithium-tagged salt provided by researchers over eight days. Baseline 24 h urine was collected, and two further 24 h urine and 24 h dietary recalls were collected between days six and eight. Discretionary salt was estimated from the lithium-tagged salt, focused questions in the 24 h dietary recall, and the 'subtraction method' (a combination of 24 h urine and 24 h dietary recall measures). (3) Results: Around one-third of estimates from the 'subtraction method' were negative and therefore unrealistic. The mean difference between 24 h dietary recall and lithium-tagged salt estimates for sodium from discretionary salt mean were 457 mg sodium/day and 65 mg/day for mean and median, respectively. (4) Conclusions: It is possible to obtain a reasonable estimate of discretionary salt intake from careful questioning regarding salt used in cooking, in recipes, and at the table during a 24 h recall process to inform population salt reduction strategies.

Longitudinal association of conduct and emotional problems with school exclusion and truancy: A fixed effect analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: There is a need for causally stronger research on the association between child mental health and school exclusion and truancy. This study examines school exclusion and truancy in relation to both conduct and emotional problems and considers these problems both as predictors and as outcomes of school exclusion and truancy. METHOD: The sample included 15,236 individuals from the Millennium Cohort Study, a UK longitudinal birth cohort study. Conduct and emotional problems were assessed from childhood to adolescence (age 7, 11, 14 and 17 years), and reports of school exclusion and truancy were collected at age 11 and 14. Fixed effect analyses were used. RESULTS: Increases in conduct problems and emotional symptoms were associated with subsequent exclusion (OR 1.22, [95% CI 1.08-1.37] and OR 1.16, [1.05-1.29], respectively). Emotional symptoms, but not conduct problems, predicted truancy (OR 1.17, [1.07-1.29]). These estimates were similar for males and females. Exclusion was associated with an increase in conduct problems at age 14 (0.50, [0.30-0.69]), and for males, it was associated with an increase in emotional symptoms both at age 14 (0.39, [0.12-0.65]) and 17 (0.43, [0.14-0.72]). Truancy was associated with an increase in conduct problems at age 14 (0.41, [0.28-0.55]), and for females also at age 17 (0.22, [0.03-0.42]), and it was associated with increased emotional symptoms at age 14 (0.43, [0.25-0.62]) and 17 (0.44, [0.21-0.66]), which was similar for males and females. CONCLUSION: Results indicate a bidirectional association between emotional symptoms and school exclusion and truancy, as an increase in these symptoms was associated with later truancy and exclusion, and emotional symptoms increased following both school events. For conduct problems, the association was bidirectional for school exclusion, but unidirectional for truancy as these symptoms did not lead to truancy, but an increase in conduct problems was observed after both exclusion and truancy.

Adjusting the Iodine Content of Iodized Salt to Meet the Recommended Intake for Females of Reproductive Age: A Simulation Study with a Reduced Sodium Scenario.

BACKGROUND: The use of iodized salt is a key strategy to increase iodine intake worldwide. In many countries, including New Zealand, females of reproductive age are still at risk of being mildly iodine deficient. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine the level of iodization of salt needed to ensure that females aged 18 to 40 y have an adequate intake of iodine in 2 scenarios: current discretionary salt intake and reduced discretionary salt intake. METHOD: Data from nonpregnant, nonlactating females aged 18 to 40 y (n = 795) who took part in the 2008/09 New Zealand Adult Nutrition Survey and completed a 24-h dietary recall were used. Iodine intake was determined from all foods except bread and discretionary salt, which are fortified with iodine. Iodine from bread and salt was estimated at different levels of salt iodization, starting at 25 mg iodine/kg salt and increasing incrementally by 5 mg/kg, and added to calculate total iodine intake. The simulation concluded when the appropriate iodine content in salt was found using the estimated average requirement (EAR) cut-point method. RESULTS: In the 2 scenarios, current discretionary salt intake (i.e., 400 mg/d) and reduced discretionary salt intake (i.e., 304 mg/d), the iodine concentration of salt is required to be 55 mg/kg and 70 mg/kg for no more than 2% of females to have an iodine intake below the EAR of 100 µg of iodine/d, respectively. In both scenarios and at all levels of iodine concentration, no one was above the upper level of intake of iodine of 1100 µg/d. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that females of reproductive age need to consume iodized salt at the higher end of the legislated range of 25 to 65 mg/kg. If strategies to reduce sodium intake were adopted, the range would need to increase, or iodized salt would need to be included in a wider range of staple foods.

Hip fractures in the older adult: orthopaedic and geriatric shared care model in Southland, New Zealand-a 5-year follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: Neck of femur fractures are common with associated high morbidity and mortality rates. National standards include provision of orthogeriatric care to any patient with a hip fracture. This study assessed the outcomes at 5 years following implementation of a collaborative orthogeriatric service at Southland Hospital in 2012. METHODS: Retrospective data were collected for patients aged 65 years and older admitted with a fragility hip fracture. Data were collated for 2011 (preimplementation) and 2017 (postimplementation). Demographic data and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) scores were recorded to ensure comparability of the patient groups. Length of stay, postoperative complications and 30-day and 1-year mortality were assessed. RESULTS: 74 admissions with mean age at surgery of 84.2 years in 2011 and 107 admissions with mean age of 82.6 years in 2017. There was a higher proportion of ASA 2 and ASA 3 patients in 2017 compared with 2011 (p=0.036). The median length of stay in the orthopaedic ward was unchanged in the two cohorts but there was a shorter median length of stay by 6.5 days and mean length of stay by 11 days in 2017 in the rehabilitation ward (p<0.001 for both median and mean). Through logistic regression controlling for age, sex and ASA score, there was a reduction in the odds of having a complication by 12% (p<0.001). The study was too small to undertake statistical testing to calculate significant difference in overall 30-day and 1-year mortality between the groups. CONCLUSION: The orthogeriatric service has reduced the frequency of complications and length of stay on the rehabilitation ward 5 years following implementation.

Multiple symptom illness in New Zealand contemporary veterans.

AIMS: To describe patterns of multiple symptom illness (MSI) in New Zealand military veterans, defined as clusters of "medically unexplained" symptoms not fitting within a specific medical diagnosis, and to investigate the relationship with exposure to traumatic events. METHODS: We designed an online cross-sectional survey. The participants of interest were the 3,874 currently serving veterans who had been deployed to a conflict zone, but all veterans were eligible to participate. A modified Centers for Disease Control (CDC) 54-item symptom checklist identified MSI, the post-traumatic checklist-military version (PCL-M) identified symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the brief trauma scale assessed "war zone" service. Factor analysis was used to identify unobserved "latent factors" in the data, factor severity scores and the number of symptoms being calculated for each respondent. RESULTS: The CDC questionnaire was completed by 1,819 veterans, with 1,672 completing the PCL-M. The factor analysis revealed three factors, explaining 86% of the variation in the data. Factor 1 symptoms were of an arthro-neuromuscular nature, Factor 2 cognitive and Factor 3 psycho-physiological. Discriminant function analysis showed that the factors could discriminate between those with and without PTSD but could not discriminate between those who did and did not serve in a war zone. CONCLUSIONS: In veterans, multiple symptoms including pain, sleep disorders, cognitive problems and avoidance, especially when severe, may be worthy of further investigation by health professionals because of the possible association with PTSD.

A meta-analysis of the validity of the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task in predicting young children's academic performance.

The present study represents the first meta-analytic synthesis of the utility of a widely used early-childhood self-regulation measure, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, in predicting children's academic achievement. A systematic review of the literature yielded 69 studies accessed from peer reviewed journals representing 413 effect sizes and 19,917 children meeting the complete set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Robust variance analysis demonstrated that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was a consistent predictor of children's academic achievement across literacy, oral language, and mathematical outcomes. A moderator analysis indicated that in accordance with prior research, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was more strongly associated with children's mathematics performance relative to their performance on language and literacy measures. The results of this meta-analysis suggest that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task demonstrated statistically significant, positive associations with children's overall academic performance. These associations remained stable across different participant and measurement factors and are comparable to meta-analyses examining the self-regulation and academic association with multiple measures of self-regulation and executive function.

Egg Introduction during Infancy is Associated with Lower Fat Mass Index in Females at Early Adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Egg consumption may play an important role in early-life growth given their high-quality protein, essential fatty acids, and micronutrients. OBJECTIVES: Study objectives were to examine the longitudinal associations of infant age at egg introduction with obesity outcomes in early childhood, middle childhood (mid-childhood), and early adolescence. METHODS: We used existing data from 1089 mother-child dyads from Project Viva to estimate age at egg introduction through a questionnaire completed by mothers at ∼1 y postpartum (mean ± SD, 13.3 ± 1.2 mo). Outcome measures included height and weight (early childhood, mid-childhood, and early adolescence), body composition including total fat mass, trunk fat mass, and lean mass (mid-childhood and early adolescence), and plasma adiponectin and leptin (early and mid-childhood and early adolescence). We defined childhood obesity as sex- and age-specific BMI ≥ 95th percentile. We estimated the associations of infant age at egg introduction with risk of obesity using multivariable logistic regression and multivariable linear regression models for BMI-z-score, body composition measures, and adiposity hormones; adjusted for maternal prepregnancy BMI and sociodemographics. RESULTS: Among females, those introduced to egg by the 1-y survey had a lower total fat mass index (confounder-adjusted mean difference, -1.23 kg/m2; 95% CI: -2.14, -0.31), and trunk fat mass index (confounder-adjusted mean difference, -0.57 kg/m2; 95% CI: -1.01, -0.12) in early adolescence compared to those not introduced (reference group). However, no associations between infant age at egg introduction and risk of obesity were observed among males (confounder-adjusted odd ratio [aOR], 1.97; 95% CI: 0.90, 4.30) or females (aOR, 0.68; 95% CI: 0.38, 1.24) across all ages. Egg introduction in infancy was associated with lower plasma adiponectin among females (confounder-adjusted mean difference, -1.93 µg/mL; 95% CI: -3.70, -0.16) in early childhood only. CONCLUSIONS: Egg introduction during infancy among females is associated with lower total fat mass index in early adolescence and plasma adiponectin in early childhood. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02820402.

Frequency of Infant Egg Consumption and Risk of Maternal-Reported Egg Allergy at 6 Years.

BACKGROUND: Recent research suggests that early egg introduction during infancy may help to prevent egg allergy development. However, the infant egg consumption frequency that is sufficient to induce this immune tolerance remains uncertain. OBJECTIVES: We examined the associations between the infant egg consumption frequency and maternal-reported child egg allergy at 6 y. METHODS: We analyzed data of 1252 children from the Infant Feeding Practices Study II (2005-2012). Mothers reported the frequency of infant egg consumption at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, and 12 mo old. Mothers reported the status of their child's egg allergy at the 6-y follow-up. We used Fisher exact test, Cochran-Armitage Trend Test, and log Poisson regression models to compare 6-y egg allergy risk by the frequency of infant egg consumption. RESULTS: The risk of maternal-reported egg allergy at 6 y significantly (P-trend = 0.004) decreased with infant egg consumption frequency at 12 mo: 2.05% (11/537) for infants not consuming eggs, 0.41% (1/244) for those consuming eggs <2 times per wk, and 0.21% (1/471) for those consuming eggs ≥2 times per wk. A similar but nonsignificant trend (P-trend=0.109) was observed for egg consumption at 10 mo (1.25%, 0.85%, and 0%, respectively). After adjusting for socioeconomic confounders, breastfeeding, complementary food introduction, and infant eczema, infants who consumed eggs ≥2 times per wk at 12 mo had a significantly lower RR of maternal-reported egg allergy at 6 y (confounder-adjusted RR: 0.11; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.88; P = 0.038), whereas those who consumed <2 times per wk (confounder-adjusted RR: 0.21; 95% CI: 0.03, 1.67; P = 0.141) did not have a significantly lower risk than those who did not consume eggs at all. CONCLUSIONS: Consumption of eggs ≥2 times per wk in late infancy is associated with a reduced risk of developing egg allergy later in childhood.

Collaboration between the military and a charity: delivering care to patients, training to defence medical staff and defence engagement overseas.

The Royal College of Anaesthetists Military Anaesthesia higher training module was approved in 2008. The opportunities for trainee deployments to operational environments are limited, and while the need to ensure training and demonstrate the unique military skill set remains, these may not be consistently attainable within NHS posts. This paper proposes a template for the successful integration of military training with a charity mission by describing experiences in Addis Ababa over the two weeks of Project Harar's 2020 Complex Surgery Mission. This model not only benefits patients and military trainees by providing opportunities to gain the skills and attributes required by the Armed Services Consultant Appointment Board, but also by projecting the Defence Medical Services on the global stage.

Spirituality: A Key Component of the Salvation Army's Bridge Programme Model of Treatment in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Spirituality is vital to The Salvation Army's Bridge model of treatment for alcohol and drug addiction. Spirituality is expressed through Recovery Church, prayer, spirituality lifters, the 12-step programme, and focuses on meaning and purpose. We recruited participants from several regional centers throughout Aotearoa New Zealand and evaluated spirituality using the WHOQol-SRPB and open-ended questions. Most participants held broad understandings of spirituality, only a minority equating it with religion. Participants who completed the Programme had statistically significant increases in spiritual wellbeing at end-of-treatment. These increases were maintained at a 3-month follow-up. Increases in spiritual wellbeing were associated with decreases in severity of alcohol and drug use.

Sleep Management Strategies Among Medical Students At the University of Otago.

OBJECTIVES: We aim to investigate factors which might affect the sleep of medical students, and how they currently manage their sleep. METHODS: An online survey was sent to medical students at the University of Otago. RESULTS: After adjusting for gender, ethnicity and age, depressive symptoms (Mild: odds ratio (OR) = 6.3; Moderate: OR = 18.1; Severe: OR = 15.6), and sleep hygiene (OR = 1.07) were associated with insomnia symptoms. Commonly endorsed strategies for sleep management by students were undertaking regular exercise (80.1%), having consistent sleep-wake time (71.3%), and limiting caffeine intake (70.3%). Few were willing to see a clinician (23.4%) or take medication (22.3%). Participants with insomnia symptoms were more likely to prefer limiting their alcohol intake (OR = 1.8), limiting daytime naps (OR = 1.5), seeing clinicians (OR = 1.9), and taking sleep medication (OR = 4.0), but less likely to prefer avoiding intense work (OR = .71) or minimizing using electronics (OR = .60) close to bedtime than those without insomnia symptoms. High sleep self-efficacy was associated with lower odds for having insomnia symptoms (OR = .74 (.70, .77)). CONCLUSIONS: Increased awareness and greater resources are needed to support the sleep health of medical students.

Delayed egg introduction beyond infancy and increased egg allergy risk in childhood.

AIM: Egg is a major food allergen in childhood. Recent studies suggest that early introduction of allergenic foods can decrease the risk of developing egg allergy. The impact of early egg introduction in the general population is unclear. We examined associations between age of infant egg introduction and childhood egg allergy outcomes in a general population. METHODS: The study population consisted of 1217 neonates from Project Viva, a longitudinal pre-birth cohort in eastern Massachusetts area, USA. Mothers reported age of infant egg introduction and child egg allergy using questionnaires and specific IgE to egg white was assayed. We estimated associations between age of infant egg introduction and egg allergy outcomes using Log-binomial regression models, adjusting for socio-demographics and health confounders. RESULTS: Egg allergy at 2 years was significantly higher (8.0% vs. 1.4%, P < 0.0001) in children who had delayed egg introduction beyond infancy, compared with children who were introduced to egg during infancy (adjusted relative risk or aRR 7.58; 95% CI 3.08, 18.61). At 12 years, the risk of egg allergy remained significantly higher (3.9% vs. 1.1%, P = 0.048) in children with delayed egg introduction compared with children introduced to egg during infancy (aRR 4.07; 95% CI 1.20, 13.87). CONCLUSIONS: Infants with delayed introduction of eggs after 12 months had increased risk of egg allergy in childhood (2 years) and the relationship persisted in early adolescence (12 years). Our findings suggest that introduction to eggs before 12 months could contribute to the prevention of egg allergy.

HTKS-Kids: A tablet-based self-regulation measure to equitably assess young children's school readiness.

Background: Technology advances make it increasingly possible to adapt direct behavioral assessments for classroom use. This study examined children's scores on HTKS-Kids, a new, largely child-led version of the established individual research assessment of self-regulation, Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders-Revised task (HTKS-R). For the HTKS-Kids tablet-based assessment, which was facilitated by children's preschool teachers, we examined (1) preliminary reliability and validity; (2) variation in scores predicted by child age and background characteristics; and (3) indication that HTKS-Kids provides different information from teacher ratings of children. Method: Participants included n = 79 4-year-old children from two urban areas in upstate New York, USA. Average parent education was 12.5 years, ranging 3-20. A researcher administered the HTKS-R to individual children, and teachers (eight white, two Latino) were trained to use the HTKS-Kids tablet-based assessment and asked to play once with each study child. Teachers also rated each child on 10 Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS) items about classroom self-regulation. Results: We found evidence that (1) the HTKS-Kids captures variation in children's self-regulation and correlates positively with established measures, (2) parent education was the best predictor of HTKS-Kids scores, and (3) teachers rated Black children significantly worse and white children better on the CBRS, with the magnitude of group differences similar to the contribution of parent education. In contrast, Black and white children showed no score differences on HTKS-Kids. Implications: The HTKS-Kids is a promising new tablet-based assessment of self-regulation that could replace or supplement traditional teacher ratings, which are often subject to implicit bias.

The Impact of the Pandemic on Mental Health in Ethnically Diverse Mothers: Findings from the Born in Bradford, Tower Hamlets and Newham COVID-19 Research Programmes.

Restrictions implemented by the UK Government during the COVID-19 pandemic have served to worsen mental health outcomes, particularly amongst younger adults, women, those living with chronic health conditions, and parents of young children. Studies looking at the impact for ethnic minorities have reported inconsistent findings. This paper describes the mental health experiences of mothers from a large and highly ethnically diverse population during the pandemic, using secondary analysis of existing data from three COVID-19 research studies completed in Bradford and London (Tower Hamlets and Newham). A total of 2807 mothers participated in this study with 44% White British, 23% Asian/Asian British Pakistani, 8% Other White and 7% Asian/Asian British Bangladeshi backgrounds. We found that 28% of mothers experienced clinically important depressive symptoms and 21% anxiety symptoms during the pandemic. In unadjusted analyses, mothers from White Other, and Asian/Asian British Bangladeshi backgrounds had higher odds of experiencing symptoms, whilst mothers from Asian/Asian British Indian backgrounds were the least likely to experience symptoms. Once loneliness, social support and financial insecurity were controlled for, there were no statistically significant differences in depression and anxiety by ethnicity. Mental health problems experienced during the pandemic may have longer term consequences for public health. Policy and decision makers must have an understanding of the high risk of financial insecurity, loneliness and a lack of social support on mother's mental health, and also recognise that some ethnic groups are far more likely to experience these issues and are, therefore, more vulnerable to poor mental health as a consequence.

Infant age at egg introduction and malnutrition-related child growth in the United States.

To evaluate the relationship between infant age of egg introduction and malnutrition-related growth outcomes in the United States, we analysed secondary data of 1716 mother-child dyads in the Infant Feeding Practices Study II and its Year 6 Follow-Up Study. Malnutrition-related growth outcomes included body mass index z-score (BMIZ), obesity (weight-for-height z-score [WHZ] ≥3 or BMIZ ≥ 2), WHZ, wasting (WHZ < -2), height-for-age z-score (HAZ), and stunting (HAZ < -2). Infant age at egg introduction was analysed as a continuous variable. We used generalised estimating equations to estimate the mean difference in continuous outcomes and relative risk [RR]) for binary outcomes, adjusting for related maternal and child confounders. We also explored interactions with child sex, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal educational level, ever breastfeeding, and formula feeding. In the total sample, a later infant age at egg introduction was associated with a lower mean difference in HAZ (confounder-adjusted mean difference = -0.08, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.12 to -0.03 per month) and a higher risk of stunting (confounder-adjusted RR = 1.17, 95% CI: 1.03-1.33 per month) at 6 years. The associations between infant age at egg introduction and 12-month growth outcomes differed by child sex. Among females but not among males, later introduction of eggs was associated with a lower mean WHZ (-0.06 [-0.12 to 0.00] per month) at 12 months. Later egg introduction during infancy was associated with a lower mean HAZ and a higher risk of stunting in 6-year-old children. Besides this, it was associated with a lower WHZ among females at 12 months.

Sodium in the New Zealand diet: proposed voluntary food reformulation targets will not meet the WHO goal of a 30% reduction in total sodium intake.

PURPOSE: To simulate the potential impact of the HeartSAFE 2020 programme, a food reformulation initiative by the New Zealand (NZ) Heart Foundation, on sodium intake in the NZ adult population. METHODS: A representative sample of NZ adults aged 15 years and older completed a 24-h diet recall survey, with 25% of participants completing a second diet recall, in the 2008/09 New Zealand Adult Nutrition Survey (n = 4721). These data were used to estimate sodium intakes of participants. The effect of altering the sodium content of 840 foods in 17 categories and 35 sub-categories included in the NZ HeartSAFE 2020 programme was simulated. The simulated sodium intake reductions in each food sub-category for the entire sample were calculated. Using sampling weights, simulated reductions in population sodium intake and by sociodemographic subgroups were also analysed. RESULTS: Sodium intake from foods included in the HeartSAFE 2020 programme was 1307 mg/day (95% CI 1279, 1336) at baseline. After applying the HeartSAFE 2020 targets, potential sodium intake was 1048 mg/day (95% CI 1024, 1027). The absolute sodium reduction was 260 mg/day (95% CI 252, 268), corresponding to 20% sodium reduction for the foods included in the NZ HeartSAFE programme. CONCLUSION: Current sodium targets featured in the NZ HeartSAFE programme will not meet the 30% sodium intake reduction set out by the WHO Global Action Plan. A more comprehensive strategy consistent with the WHO SHAKE Technical Package is needed to advance the goal of sodium intake reduction.