P2Y6 receptor inhibition perturbs CCL2-evoked signalling in human monocytic and peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

The chemokine CCL2 serves to target circulating monocytes and other leukocytes to tissue during innate immune responses, and modulates the progression of chronic inflammatory disease through activation of the receptor CCR2. Here, we show that co-activation of the P2Y6 purinergic receptor (encoded by P2RY6) occurs when THP-1 cells and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells sense CCL2 through CCR2. Furthermore, P2Y6 receptor activation accounts for ∼80% of the intracellular Ca²âº signal evoked by CCL2. Scavenging extracellular nucleotides with apyrase caused a fourfold reduction in THP-1 sensitivity to CCL2, whereas inhibition of CD39-like ectonucleotidases potentiated CCL2-evoked Ca²âº responses. Pharmacological inhibition of P2Y6 impaired CCL2-evoked Ca²âº signalling and chemotaxis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and THP-1 cells. Furthermore, stable P2Y6 receptor knockdown (of twofold) in THP-1 cells impaired CCL2-evoked Ca²âº signalling, chemotaxis and adhesion to TNFα-treated HUVECs. We demonstrate that THP-1 cells rapidly secrete ATP during signalling downstream of the CCL2-CCR2 axis and suggest this might act as a mechanism for P2Y6 receptor co-activation following CCL2 activation of the CCR2 receptor. The discovery that P2Y6 receptor mediates leukocyte responsiveness to CCL2 represents a new mechanism by which to modulate CCL2 signals.

Constitutive and agonist stimulated ATP secretion in leukocytes.

Release and reception of extracellular ATP by leukocytes plays a critical role in immune responses to infection, injury and cardiovascular disease. Leukocytes of both the innate, adaptive immune and central nervous system express a repertoire of cell surface receptors for ATP (P2X and P2Y receptors) and its metabolites. ATP acts as a damage-associated molecule pattern (DAMP) released by injured or dying cells. Detection of released ATP by neighboring leukocytes initiates inflammation and wound healing. However, recent evidence from our group and others suggests ATP release by leukocytes themselves serves to regulate homeostatic mechanisms and coordinate responses to external pro-inflammatory cues. Examples include the homeostatic control of intracellular calcium and regulation of migratory guidance during chemotactic response to external cues. Though there has been some progress in elucidating ATP release mechanisms of some mammalian cells types, release conduits and coupling signal transduction machinery remain larger elusive for leukocytes. Our recent studies suggest a role for secretory lysosomes in releasing ATP in monocytes. Though poorly defined, targeting ATP release mechanisms in leukocytes have great anti-inflammatory potential.

Constitutive lysosome exocytosis releases ATP and engages P2Y receptors in human monocytes.

Elucidating mechanisms by which Ca(2+) signals are generated by monocytes is important for understanding monocyte function in health and disease. We have investigated mechanisms underlying Ca(2+) signals generated following disruption of lysosomes by exposure to the cathepsin C substrate glycyl-L-phenylalanine-ß-napthylamide (GPN). Exposure to 0.2 mM GPN resulted in robust increases in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+). The response was antagonised by thapsigargin and evoked capacitative Ca(2+) entry. Dantrolene-sensitive Ca(2+) responses were observed at higher concentrations of GPN (0.4 mM) but not at 0.2 mM. Strikingly, GPN-evoked Ca(2+) responses and ß-hexosaminidase secretion were inhibited by the ATPase/ADPase apyrase. Simultaneous measurement of [Ca(2+)](i) and extracellular ATP revealed a concomitant secretion of ATP during GPN-evoked Ca(2+) signalling. Furthermore, the ability of GPN to raise [Ca(2+)](i) was inhibited by P2Y receptor antagonists or by inhibiting vesicular exocytosis with N-ethylmaleimide (NEM). NEM treatment was associated with an inability of GPN to trigger ATP secretion, a drop in baseline [Ca(2+)](i) and reduction in extracellular ATP concentration. Antagonism of purinergic signalling also caused a reduction in baseline [Ca(2+)](i). In summary, these data suggest that P2Y receptor activation contributes significantly to GPN-evoked Ca(2+) signalling, and that constitutive secretion of lysosomal ATP is a major determinant of Ca(2+) homeostasis in monocytes. Lysosomal Ca(2+) stores can communicate with ER Ca(2+) stores either directly through activation of ryanodine receptors, or indirectly through release of ATP and engagement of P2Y receptors.

Preclinical evaluation of an inhibitor of cytosolic phospholipase A2α for the treatment of asthma.

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease with considerable unmet medical needs for new and effective therapies. Cytosolic phospholipase A(2)α (cPLA(2)α) is the rate-limiting enzyme that is ultimately responsible for the production of eicosanoids implicated in the pathogenesis of asthma. We investigated a novel cPLA(2)α inhibitor, PF-5212372, to establish the potential of this drug as a treatment for asthma. PF-5212372 was a potent inhibitor of cPLA(2)α (7 nM) and was able to inhibit prostaglandin (PG)D(2) and cysteinyl leukotriene release from anti-IgE-stimulated human lung mast cells (0.29 and 0.45 nM, respectively). In a mixed human lung cell population, PF-5212372 was able to inhibit ionomycin-stimulated release of leukotriene B(4), thromboxane A(2), and PGD(2) (2.6, 2.6, and 4.0 nM, respectively) but was significantly less effective against PGE(2) release (>301 nM; p < 0.05). In an in vitro cell retention assay, PF-5212372 retained its potency up to 24 h after being washed off. In a sheep model of allergic inflammation, inhalation of PF-5212372 significantly inhibited late-phase bronchoconstriction (78% inhibition; p < 0.001) and airway hyper-responsiveness (94% inhibition; p < 0.001), and isolated sheep lung mast cell assays confirmed species translation via effective inhibition of PGD(2) release (0.78 nM). Finally, PF-5212372 was assessed for its ability to inhibit the contraction of human bronchi induced by AMP. PF5212372 significantly inhibited AMP-induced contraction of human bronchi (81% inhibition; p < 0.001); this finding, together with the ability of this drug to be effective in a wide range of preclinical asthma models, suggests that inhibition of cPLA(2)α with PF-5212372 may represent a new therapeutic option for the treatment of asthma.

The role of IFN-gamma in regulation of IFN-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) expression in lung epithelial cell and peripheral blood mononuclear cell co-cultures.

BACKGROUND: Interferons play a critical role in regulating both the innate and adaptive immune responses. Previous reports have shown increased levels of IFN-gamma, IFN-gamma-inducing IL-12 and IFN-gamma-inducible chemokine IP-10 in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). METHODS: The present study focuses on the regulation of the IP-10 secretion in co-cultures of lung epithelial cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). RESULTS: No IP-10 secretion was detected in cells cultured alone, whereas a significant increase in IP-10 levels was observed in epithelial cell/PBMC co-cultures. Furthermore, the results show that interactions between lung epithelial cells, lymphocytes and monocytes are needed for basal IP-10 secretion. Interestingly, we have also shown that incubation with IL-12 can induce an IFN-gamma independent increase in IP-10 levels in co-cultures. Furthermore, inhibition studies supported the suggestion that different intracellular pathways are responsible of IFN-gamma and IL-12 mediated IP-10 secretion. CONCLUSION: These studies demonstrate a novel diversity in IFN-gamma/IL-12 pathways, showing that the IP-10 expression in co-cultures is regulated by multiple factors, such as intercellular interactions in addition to IFN-gamma and IL-12 levels. These results may be valuable in designing novel strategies to antagonize IP-10 mediated immunological reactions and chemotactic effects on T cells.