Posterior Basolateral Amygdala is a Critical Amygdaloid Area for Temporal Lobe Epilepsy.

The amygdaloid complex consists of multiple nuclei and is a key node in controlling temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) in both human and animal model studies. However, the specific nucleus in the amygdaloid complex and the neural circuitry governing seizures remain unknown. Here, it is discovered that activation of glutamatergic neurons in the posterior basolateral amygdala (pBLA) induces severe seizures and even mortality. The pBLA glutamatergic neurons project collateral connections to multiple brain regions, including the insular cortex (IC), bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), and central amygdala (CeA). Stimulation of pBLA-targeted IC neurons triggers seizures, whereas ablation of IC neurons suppresses seizures induced by activating pBLA glutamatergic neurons. GABAergic neurons in the BNST and CeA establish feedback inhibition on pBLA glutamatergic neurons. Deleting GABAergic neurons in the BNST or CeA leads to sporadic seizures, highlighting their role in balancing pBLA activity. Furthermore, pBLA neurons receive glutamatergic inputs from the ventral hippocampal CA1 (vCA1). Ablation of pBLA glutamatergic neurons mitigates both acute and chronic seizures in the intrahippocampal kainic acid-induced mouse model of TLE. Together, these findings identify the pBLA as a pivotal nucleus in the amygdaloid complex for regulating epileptic seizures in TLE.

C3aR in the medial prefrontal cortex modulates the susceptibility to LPS-induced depressive-like behaviors through glutamatergic neuronal excitability.

Complement activation and prefrontal cortical dysfunction both contribute to the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder (MDD), but their interplay in MDD is unclear. We here studied the role of complement C3a receptor (C3aR) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and its influence on depressive-like behaviors induced by systematic lipopolysaccharides (LPS) administration. C3aR knockout (KO) or intra-mPFC C3aR antagonism confers resilience, whereas C3aR expression in mPFC neurons makes KO mice susceptible to LPS-induced depressive-like behaviors. Importantly, the excitation and inhibition of mPFC neurons have opposing effects on depressive-like behaviors, aligning with increased and decreased excitability by C3aR deletion and activation in cortical neurons. In particular, inhibiting mPFC glutamatergic (mPFCGlu) neurons, the main neuronal subpopulation expresses C3aR, induces depressive-like behaviors in saline-treated WT and KO mice, but not in LPS-treated KO mice. Compared to hypoexcitable mPFCGlu neurons in LPS-treated WT mice, C3aR-null mPFCGlu neurons display hyperexcitability upon LPS treatment, and enhanced excitation of mPFCGlu neurons is anti-depressant, suggesting a protective role of C3aR deficiency in these circumstances. In conclusion, C3aR modulates susceptibility to LPS-induced depressive-like behaviors through mPFCGlu neuronal excitability. This study identifies C3aR as a pivotal intersection of complement activation, mPFC dysfunction, and depression and a promising therapeutic target for MDD.

Distinct Circuits From the Central Lateral Amygdala to the Ventral Part of the Bed Nucleus of Stria Terminalis Regulate Different Fear Memory.

BACKGROUND: The ability to differentiate stimuli that predict fear is critical for survival; however, the underlying molecular and circuit mechanisms remain poorly understood. METHODS: We combined transgenic mice, in vivo transsynaptic circuit-dissecting anatomical approaches, optogenetics, pharmacological methods, and electrophysiological recording to investigate the involvement of specific extended amygdala circuits in different fear memory. RESULTS: We identified the projections from central lateral amygdala (CeL) protein kinase C δ (PKCδ)-positive neurons and somatostatin (SST)-positive neurons to GABAergic (gamma-aminobutyric acidergic) and glutamatergic neurons in the ventral part of the bed nucleus of stria terminalis (vBNST). Prolonged optogenetic activation or inhibition of the PKCδCeL-vBNST pathway specifically reduced context fear memory, whereas the SSTCeL-vBNST pathway mainly reduced tone fear memory. Intriguingly, optogenetic manipulation of vBNST neurons that received the projection from PKCδCeL neurons exerted bidirectional regulation of context fear, whereas manipulation of vBNST neurons that received the projection from SSTCeL neurons could bidirectionally regulate both context and tone fear memory. We subsequently demonstrated the presence of δ and κ opioid receptor protein expression within the CeL-vBNST circuits, potentially accounting for the discrepancy between prolonged activation of GABAergic circuits and inhibition of downstream vBNST neurons. Finally, administration of an opioid receptor antagonist cocktail on the PKCδCeL-vBNST or SSTCeL-vBNST pathway successfully restored context or tone fear memory reduction induced by prolonged activation of the circuits. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these findings establish a functional role for distinct CeL-vBNST circuits in the differential regulation and appropriate maintenance of fear.

ErbB4 regulate extracellular dopamine through the p38 MAPK signaling pathway.

ErbB4 loss-of-function in catecholaminergic neurons induces catecholamine dyshomeostasis. Despite ErbB4's significant role in neuropathology, the signaling pathways that regulate these changes are still widely unknown. In this study, we attempt to identify the downstream pathway of ErbB4 that regulates catecholamine homeostasis. The SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell line was used as the in vitro model for catecholaminergic neurons. Western blotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and pharmacological and genetic manipulations by agonist/antagonist or small interference RNA were used to investigate the relationship between ErbB4 and extracellular catecholamines. We confirmed that ErbB4 is abundantly expressed in undifferentiated and retinoic acid-differentiated catecholaminergic cells from the SH-SY5Y cell line. ErbB4 inhibition increase the ratio of phosphorylated p38 to total p38 in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Consistent with previous in vivo observations in mice, ErbB4 deficiency led to increases in extracellular dopamine and norepinephrine levels. However, the resulting increase in extracellular dopamine, but not norepinephrine, could be suppressed by p38 inhibitor SB202190. Our results suggest that both extracellular dopamine and norepinephrine homeostasis could be regulated by ErbB4 in human catecholaminergic cells, and ErbB4 may regulate extracellular dopamine, but not norepinephrine, through the p38 MAPK signaling pathway, thus indicating different regulatory pathways of dopamine and norepinephrine by ErbB4 in catecholaminergic neurons.

Incerta-thalamic Circuit Controls Nocifensive Behavior via Cannabinoid Type 1 Receptors.

Pain is a source of substantial discomfort. Abnormal activity in both the zona incerta (ZI) and posterior complex of the thalamus (Po) are implicated in neuropathic pain, but their exact roles remain unclear. In particular, the precise cell types and molecular mechanisms of the ZI-Po circuit that regulate nociception are largely uncharacterized. Here, we found that parvalbumin (PV)-positive neuronal projections from the ventral ZI (ZIv) to the Po (ZIv-Po) are critical for promoting nocifensive behaviors, whereas selectively inhibiting ZIv-Po activity reduces nocifensive withdrawal responses. Furthermore, cannabinoid type 1 receptors (CB1Rs) are expressed specifically at ZIv-Po axon terminals in this circuit, and cannabinoids attenuate nocifensive responses through presynaptic inhibition. Selective inhibition of the ZIv-Po circuit or administration of cannabinoids into the Po are sufficient to ameliorate pathological pain. These findings identify the critical role of the ZIv-Po circuit and its modulation by endocannabinoids in controlling nocifensive behaviors.

MeCP2 in cholinergic interneurons of nucleus accumbens regulates fear learning.

Methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) encoded by the MECP2 gene is a transcriptional regulator whose mutations cause Rett syndrome (RTT). Mecp2-deficient mice show fear regulation impairment; however, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying this abnormal behavior are largely uncharacterized. Here, we showed that Mecp2 gene deficiency in cholinergic interneurons of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) dramatically impaired fear learning. We further found that spontaneous activity of cholinergic interneurons in Mecp2-deficient mice decreased, mediated by enhanced inhibitory transmission via α2-containing GABAA receptors. With MeCP2 restoration, opto- and chemo-genetic activation, and RNA interference in ChAT-expressing interneurons of the NAc, impaired fear retrieval was rescued. Taken together, these results reveal a previously unknown role of MeCP2 in NAc cholinergic interneurons in fear regulation, suggesting that modulation of neurons in the NAc may ameliorate fear-related disorders.

ErbB4 deletion in noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus induces mania-like behavior via elevated catecholamines.

Dysfunction of the noradrenergic (NE) neurons is implicated in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder (BPD). ErbB4 is highly expressed in NE neurons, and its genetic variation has been linked to BPD; however, how ErbB4 regulates NE neuronal function and contributes to BPD pathogenesis is unclear. Here we find that conditional deletion of ErbB4 in locus coeruleus (LC) NE neurons increases neuronal spontaneous firing through NMDA receptor hyperfunction, and elevates catecholamines in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Furthermore, Erbb4-deficient mice present mania-like behaviors, including hyperactivity, reduced anxiety and depression, and increased sucrose preference. These behaviors are completely rescued by the anti-manic drug lithium or antagonists of catecholaminergic receptors. Our study demonstrates the critical role of ErbB4 signaling in regulating LC-NE neuronal function, reinforcing the view that dysfunction of the NE system may contribute to the pathogenesis of mania-associated disorder.

Unilateral whisker pad injection of botulinum toxin type a enhances spatial learning in mice.

The central cholinergic nervous system plays an important role in cognition, with acetylcholine hypofunction considered to be a major factor of dementia. Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A), a potent poison secreted by Clostridium botulinum, is used widely for dystonia treatment and facial cosmesis. BoNT/A injection inhibits acetylcholine release in the neuromuscular junction through cleavage of synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa in cholinergic terminals. Furthermore, beyond the injection site, BoNT/A undergoes retrograde transport and transcytosis to the central nervous system from peripheral cholinergic terminals. However, whether peripheral BoNT/A injection affects the function of the central nervous system and induces learning deficits remains unclear. We injected mice with different doses of BoNT/A (2, 10, and 50 U/kg) or sterile saline (control) into the left whisker pad to test spatial learning performance at different times after injection using the Morris water maze. At 3 days and 4 weeks after injection, the spatial learning ability of the control and BoNT/A-treated mice showed no significant differences. Surprisingly, however, rather than spatial learning impairment at 6 weeks after injection, BoNT/A-treated mice spent less time than control mice in locating the experimental platform, indicating that BoNT/A facial injection might promote spatial learning. Furthermore, our study suggests that facial application of BoNT/A is safe and could play a positive role in ameliorating the spatial learning deficits associated with neurodegenerative diseases.

Increased NRG1-ErbB4 signaling in human symptomatic epilepsy.

Previous studies have shown that the neuregulin 1 (NRG1)-ErbB4 signaling pathway may regulate the excitability of fast-spiking neurons in the frontal cortex and participate in primary epilepsy pathogenesis. However, the exact roles and mechanism for NRG1/ErbB4 in human symptomatic epilepsy are still unclear. Using fresh human symptomatic epilepsy tissues, we found that the protein levels of NRG1 and ErbB4 were significantly increased in the temporal cortex. In addition, NRG1-ErbB4 signaling suppressed phosphorylation of GluN2B at position 1472 by Src kinase, and decreased levels of phosphorylation level of GluN2B and Src were detected in human symptomatic epilepsy tissues. Our study revealed a critical role of the NRG1-ErbB4 signaling pathway in symptomatic epilepsy, which is different from that in primary epilepsy, and we propose that the NRG1-ErbB4 signaling may act as a homeostasis modulator that protects the brain from aggravation of epileptiform activity.

Loss of MeCP2 in cholinergic neurons causes part of RTT-like phenotypes via α7 receptor in hippocampus.

Mutations in the X-linked MECP2 gene cause Rett syndrome (RTT), an autism spectrum disorder characterized by impaired social interactions, motor abnormalities, cognitive defects and a high risk of epilepsy. Here, we showed that conditional deletion of Mecp2 in cholinergic neurons caused part of RTT-like phenotypes, which could be rescued by re-expressing Mecp2 in the basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic neurons rather than in the caudate putamen of conditional knockout (Chat-Mecp2(-/y)) mice. We found that choline acetyltransferase expression was decreased in the BF and that α7 nicotine acetylcholine receptor signaling was strongly impaired in the hippocampus of Chat-Mecp2(-/y) mice, which is sufficient to produce neuronal hyperexcitation and increase seizure susceptibility. Application of PNU282987 or nicotine in the hippocampus rescued these phenotypes in Chat-Mecp2(-/y) mice. Taken together, our findings suggest that MeCP2 is critical for normal function of cholinergic neurons and dysfunction of cholinergic neurons can contribute to numerous neuropsychiatric phenotypes.

Levels and distribution of synthetic musks and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sludge collected from Guangdong Province.

The levels and distribution of six polycyclic musks, three nitromusks and 15 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in sludge collected from 19 municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in six cities in Guangdong Province, China. PAHs were detected in all of the sludge samples, and the levels of the total 15 PAHs ranged from 177.2-4421.8 µg/kg dry weight (dw). Four polycyclic musks, 4-acetyl-1,1-dimethyl-6-tert-butylindan (ADBI), 6-acetyl-1,1,2,3,3,5-hexamethylindan (AHMI), 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta (g) -2-benzopyran (HHCB) and 7-acetyl -1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro naphthalene (AHTN), were found in these samples. The total concentrations of polycyclic musks varied from 794.4-12960.3 µg/kg dw, with HHCB and AHTN being the main components. Of the three nitromusks, 2,6-dinitro-3-methoxy-4-tert- butyl - toluene (MA) was only found in one sludge sample at the limit of detection (LOD) level, while 1-tert-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (Musk xylene, MX) and 4-acetyl-1-tert-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,6-dinitrobenzene (Musk ketone, MK) were found at levels ranging from the LOD to 65.8 µg/kg dw and LOD to 172.7 µg/kg dw, respectively, in most of the sludge samples. The PAHs, polycyclic musks and nitro musks were also shown to have various distribution patterns, possibly due to their different wastewater sources and wastewater treatment technology.

Neuregulin 1 regulates excitability of fast-spiking neurons through Kv1.1 and acts in epilepsy.

Dysfunction of fast-spiking, parvalbumin-positive (FS-PV) interneurons is implicated in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. ErbB4, a key Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) receptor, is mainly expressed in this type of interneurons, and recent studies suggest that parvalbumin interneurons are a major target of NRG1-ErbB4 signaling in adult brain. Thus, we hypothesized that downregulation of NRG1-ErbB4 signaling in FS-PV interneurons is involved in epilepsy. We found that NRG1, through its receptor ErbB4, increased the intrinsic excitability of FS-PV interneurons. This effect was mediated by increasing the near-threshold responsiveness and decreasing the voltage threshold for action potentials through Kv1.1, a voltage-gated potassium channel. Furthermore, mice with specific deletion of ErbB4 in parvalbumin interneurons were more susceptible to pentylenetetrazole- and pilocarpine-induced models of epilepsy. Exogenous NRG1 delayed the onset of seizures and decreased their incidence and stage. Moreover, expression of ErbB4, but not ErbB2, was downregulated in human epileptogenic tissue. Together, our findings suggest that NRG1-ErbB4 signaling contributes to human epilepsy through regulating the excitability of FS-PV interneurons. ErbB4 may be a new target for anticonvulsant drugs in epilepsy.

Nonvolatile taste compounds in cooked Chinese Nanjing duck meat following postproduction heat treatment.

UNLABELLED: Taste-active compounds, including free amino acids, succinic acid and 5'-nucleotides, and chemical components including moisture, pH, protein, crude fat, and sodium chloride were evaluated in cooked and packaged Chinese Nanjing ducks following heat treatments including control, 99 °C for 40 min, 108 °C for 20 min, 92 °C microwave followed by water heating, 95 °C for 30 min, 121 °C for 25 min. Heat treatment decreased (P < 0.05) the content of Alamine and moisture and reduced the pH value in muscle, but increased (P < 0.05) the protein and 5'-nucleotides content. The 99 °C group had a significantly lower crude fat content compared with other groups (P < 0.05). The succinic acid content in the control group was significantly higher than in the 121 °C group (P < 0.05). Groups treated at higher temperatures (108 °C, 121 °C, and microwave) had similar equivalent umami concentrations and 5'-nucleotides, free amino acids content, as well as the derived bitter and sweet taste components compared with the groups treated at lower temperatures. It can be speculated that these differences account for the enhanced flavor of the meat in the 99 °C, 108 °C, 121 °C, and microwave groups compared with the untreated control. Therefore, heat treatment at lower temperature after packaging may prolong product shelf life without any detrimental effects on taste. The results of this study indicate that it is important to use lower temperatures in this type of food processing. However, it may be possible to modify the primary processing steps to improve the content of umami-like taste compounds such as 5'-nucleotides. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Heat treatment of packaged products is an effective method for eradication of microbes, therefore increasing the shelf-life. However, such treatment can result in major changes in the sensory perception of meat products, particularly the formation of off-flavors. This study investigated changes in taste-active compounds in duck meat following a number of types of heat treatment.

Structural characterization of a series of 10-carbon sugar derivatives by electrospray-ionization MSn mass spectrometry.

Electrospray-ionization MSn mass spectrometry (ESI-MSn) with low-energy, collision-induced dissociation (CID) was used to establish the fragmentation behavior of sodium ion adducts of higher-carbon amino spiro-sugar derivatives. Their fragmentation pathways are proposed on the basis of the MSn studies and deuteration experiments. Some of the rings of these derivatives opened under the conditions of electrospray ionization. Novel fragmentations were observed and their mechanisms are proposed. This study demonstrates the power of modern mass spectrometry for rapid elucidation of the structure of higher-carbon sugar derivatives.

[Application of molecular absorption spectrophotometric method to the determination of biologic macromolecular structures].

A review on recent applications of molecular absorption spectrophotometric method to the identification of the structures of biologic macromolecules, such as protein and nucleic acid, is presented. Molecular absorption spectrophotometric method is widely used in the structure determination of biologic macromolecules for its convenience and speed. Ultraviolet absorption spectrum (UV) can be used in the research on the mechanism of the interaction of anticancer drugs and DNA. UV can also be used to study the interaction of spectroscopic probe with biologic molecule and their binding mechanism. Protein secondary structure and conformation can be investigated by Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) deconvolution analysis. Molecular absorption spectrophotometric method is an important tool for structure study of biologic macromolecules.

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometric studies of phosphorus oxychloride directed synthesis of homo-oligopeptide ester libraries.

With the assistance of phosphorus oxychloride, alpha-amino acids were assembled into homo-peptides, which were analyzed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and multistage electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). On quenching with water or various alcohols, the reaction mixtures yielded the corresponding peptides or peptide esters, respectively. This paper reports a simple method to synthesize the homo-oligo-peptide-ester conjugated library by phosphorus oxychloride activation.