Comparative Analysis of Skin Bacterial Diversity and Its Potential Antifungal Function Between Desert and Pine Forest Populations of Boreal Toads Anaxyrus boreas.

The skin microbiome in amphibians has gained a lot of attention as some of its members play a protective role against pathogens such as the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). The composition of skin bacterial communities has been suggested as one of the factors explaining differences in susceptibility to Bd among amphibian species and populations. The boreal toad Anaxyrus boreas is known to be susceptible to Bd, and severe population declines in its southeastern range have been documented. However, throughout A. boreas distribution, populations present differences in susceptibility to Bd infections which may be associated with differences in skin microbial diversity. This study compared the skin bacterial diversity and Bd infection levels of A. boreas in one desert population and one pine forest population from Baja California, Mexico. We found that desert and pine forest toad populations exhibit differences in skin bacterial community structure but show similar Bd infection levels. Using a predictive method, we found that the abundance of bacteria with potential Bd-inhibitory properties differed between uninfected and infected individuals but not between populations. Our data suggest that several bacteria in the skin community may be offering protection from Bd infections in these A. boreas populations. This study provides foundational evidence for future studies seeking to understand the skin-microbial variation among boreal toads' populations and its relation with Bd susceptibility.

Genetic variation of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is linked to skin bacterial diversity in the Pacific treefrog Hyliola regilla (hypochondriaca).

Symbiotic bacterial communities are crucial to combating infections and contribute to host health. The amphibian skin microbiome plays an important role in protecting their hosts against pathogens such as Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), one of the causative agents of chytridiomycosis, which is responsible for dramatic amphibian population declines worldwide. Although symbiotic skin bacteria are known to inhibit Bd growth, an understanding of the relationship between Bd genetic variability, environmental conditions, and skin bacterial communities is limited. Therefore, we examined the associations between Bd infection load, Bd genetic diversity and skin bacterial communities in five populations of Hyliola regilla (hypochondriaca) from environmentally contrasting sites in Baja California, Mexico. We observed differences in Bd genetics and infection load among sites and environments. Genetic analysis of Bd isolates revealed patterns of spatial structure corresponding to the five sites sampled. Amphibian skin bacterial diversity and community structure differed among environments and sites. Bacterial community composition was correlated with Bd genetic differences and infection load, with specific bacterial taxa enriched on infected and un-infected frogs. Our results indicate that skin-associated bacteria and Bd strains likely interact on the host skin, with consequences for microbial community structure and Bd infection intensity.

Descriptions of five new species of the salamander genus Chiropterotriton (Caudata: Plethodontidae) from eastern Mexico and the status of three currently recognized taxa.

The genus Chiropterotriton is endemic to Mexico with a geographical distribution along the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Sierra de Juárez. The recent use of molecular tools has shown that Mexico's amphibian diversity is highly underestimated, including a large number of cryptic, unnamed species. Chiropterotriton has 18 described species including terrestrial, arboreal and cave-dwelling species. In previous molecular studies, the presence of multiple undescribed species was evident. We present a phylogenetic hypothesis based on mitochondrial data, which includes all described species and six undescribed taxa. Based on the morphological analyses and, when available, combined with molecular data, we describe five new species of the genus; Chiropterotriton casasi sp. nov., C. ceronorum sp. nov., C. melipona sp. nov., C. perotensis sp. nov. and C. totonacus sp. nov. In addition, we redescribe two others: Chiropterotriton chiropterus and C. orculus, and provide a comparable account of one additional sympatric congener. This increases the number of species in the genus to 23, which represent a considerable component of Mexican plethodontid richness.

A new terrestrial species of Chiropterotriton (Caudata: Plethodontidae) from central Mexico.

Chiropterotriton is a relatively small genus that comprises 15 species with great morphological and ecological diversity. In previous studies, molecular data provided evidence for a considerable number of species that remain undescribed. In this study, we describe one new species, Chiropterotriton chico sp. nov. based on molecular and morphological characters. We present mtDNA phylogenetic analyses using Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood that include all described and several undescribed species. Morphometric data from eight recognized species provide evidence for the distinctiveness of the new taxon. Description of this new species adds to the already high salamander diversity of the state of Hidalgo, which is an important area for the diversification of the genus.

Is Expanded HIV Testing Associated with Earlier HIV Diagnosis? Results from an HIV Clinic in Guatemala City.

BACKGROUND: Most patients in Guatemala are diagnosed with advanced HIV disease. Patients that present late in the disease process may miss the morbidity and mortality benefits associated with early treatment and may unknowingly spread HIV to others. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: We examined trends in HIV detection and levels of immunosuppression at diagnosis from 2005 -2012 to determine if expanded HIV testing was associated with earlier detection of HIV. SETTING: This study was conducted at the Clínica Familiar Luis Ángel García (CFLAG), a major HIV center associated with one of Guatemala's two national hospitals. HIV testing expanded rapidly after 2007 due to grants from the Global Fund which allowed for routine prenatal testing. METHODS: This study examined existing hospital and clinic databases from to evaluate results from HIV tests performed, and baseline CD4 cells/mm(3) on all patients newly diagnosed with HIV infection from 2005 to 2012. RESULTS: We found a decline in the number of HIV positive tests over the study period despite an increase in the total number of tests performed. Sixty-two percent of HIV infected individuals had AIDS at diagnosis. We observed a decrease in median CD4 cells/mm(3) among the prenatal testees and no change in non-prenatal testees. DISCUSSION: Expanded HIV counseling and testing services in our clinic did not result in earlier HIV diagnosis.

Presencia de flecha furcal asociado al diagnostico clínico de lesiones de furca en molares maxilares / Presence of furcal arrow associated with the clinical diagnosis of furcation lesions in maxillary molars

El presente estudio dará a conocer la relación entre la presencia de flecha furcal y las lesiones de furca grado I, II y III en cráneos humanos secos, se pretende contribuir al diagnóstico clínico de las lesiones periodontales. Determinando los signos radiográficos como apoyo al diagnóstico de lesiones de furca en molares maxilares, estableciendo la relación de flecha furcal definida como una imagen radiolúcida en el sector de molares superiores en áreas de furcación proximales con lesiones de furca. El desarrollo de esta investigación de tipo descriptivo, se realizó de agosto/2005 a abril/2006, en la Facultad de Odontología de la Universidad de El Salvador, teniendo el apoyo de instituciones del área de la salud de diferentes regiones del país. Los objetos de estudio fueron 188 superficies proximales de primeras y segundas molares maxilares de 40 cráneos humanos secos, a los cuales se les realizó una evaluación clínica a través del sondeo y toma radiográfica para determinar la frecuencia y las características de la imagen flecha furcal. Obteniendo como resultados un promedio general de relación de imagen de flecha furcal del 63.79% con lesiones de furca. Con una incidencia de la imagen flecha furcal del 62.67% para lesiones grado I, 64.62% en lesiones grado II y 70% para grado III.

The present study will reveal the relationship between the presence of furcal arrows and grade I, II and III furcation lesions in dry human skulls, it is intended to contribute to the clinical diagnosis of periodontal lesions. Determining the radiographic signs to support the diagnosis of furcation lesions in maxillary molars, establishing the furcal arrow relationship defined as a radiolucent image in the upper molar sector in proximal furcation areas with furcation lesions. The development of this descriptive research was carried out from August / 2005 to April / 2006, at the Faculty of Dentistry of the University of El Salvador, having the support of institutions in the health area of ​​different regions of the country. The study objects were 188 proximal surfaces of maxillary first and second molars from 40 dry human skulls, which underwent a clinical evaluation through probing and radiographic taking to determine the frequency and characteristics of the furcal arrow image. Obtaining as results a general average of the furcal arrow image ratio of 63.79% with furcation lesions. With an incidence of the furcal arrow image of 62.67% for grade I lesions, 64.62% for grade II lesions and 70% for grade III.