Interplay of the Mediterranean diet and genetic hypertension risk on blood pressure in European adolescents: Findings from the HELENA study.

Early-life onset of high blood pressure is associated with the development of cardiovascular diseases in adulthood. In adolescents, limited evidence exists regarding the association between adherence to the Mediterranean Diet (MedDiet) and normal blood pressure (BP) levels, as well as its potential to modulate genetic predisposition to HTN. This study investigated the interaction between a MedDiet score and a recently developed HTN-genetic risk score (HTN-GRS) on blood pressure levels in a European adolescent cohort. The MedDiet score was derived from two non-consecutive 24-h dietary recalls and ranged from 0 (indicating low adherence) to 9 (indicating high adherence). Multiple linear regression models, adjusted for covariates, were employed to examine the relationship between the MedDiet score and BP z-scores and to assess the interaction effects between the MedDiet score and HTN-GRS on BP z-scores. MedDiet score showed a negative association with z-systolic BP (SBP) (ß = -0.40, p < 0.001) and z-diastolic BP (DBP) (ß = -0.29, p = 0.001). Additionally, a significant interaction effect was identified between the MedDiet score and HTN-GRS on z-SBP (ß = 0.02, p < 0.001) and z-DBP (ß = 0.02, p < 0.001). The modulatory effect of the MedDiet was more pronounced in females than in males, and HTN-GRS exhibited a stronger influence on DBP than on SBP.   Conclusion: The study suggests that higher adherence to the MedDiet is associated with reduced BP levels in adolescents and provides evidence of a genetic-diet interaction influencing BP in adolescents. What is Known: • Adherence to the Mediterranean diet may reduce BP levels. What is New: • It is the first study to assess the connection between adherence to a Mediterranean diet, a hypertension genetic risk score, and how they interact in influencing blood pressure. • It is conducted within a multicenter cohort of European adolescents.

Inequalities in Childhood Nutrition, Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviour and Obesity in Italy.

Unhealthy diets, physical inactivity and high body mass index (BMI) are preventable risk factors for non-communicable diseases throughout a person's lifespan. The higher prevalence of these risk factors in children from lower socio-economic groups has been generally observed. The aim of this study is to explore the effect of parents' socio-economic conditions on children's consumption of fruit, vegetables and sugar-sweetened drinks, and inactivity, sedentary behaviour, overweight and obesity. This study used data from the sixth cross-sectional survey of the surveillance "OKkio alla Salute" (Italian COSI), involving 2467 schools and 53,275 children in 2019. All the information was collected through four questionnaires addressed to parents, children, teachers and head teachers. The weights and heights of the children were measured with standard techniques and equipment to classify overweight/obesity according to the WOF-IOTF cut-offs. The results showed a high percentage of children who do not adhere to health recommendations and a high prevalence of overweight and obesity. In particular, "less healthy" behaviours and higher BMI were more frequent in children from families with a lower socio-economic status and those residing in Southern Italy. These findings highlight the need for effective interventions that address the differences in these health-related behaviours.

Can the Substitution of Milk with Plant-Based Drinks Affect Health-Related Markers? A Systematic Review of Human Intervention Studies in Adults.

The consumption of plant-based drinks (PBDs) in substitution for cow's milk (CM) is increasing due to concerns for human and planet health and animal welfare. The present review aims to analyze the main findings from intervention trials investigating the effect of PBDs in comparison with CM on markers of human health. Suitable articles published up to July 2022 were sourced from PubMed and Scopus databases. A total of 29 papers were collected, with 27 focusing on soy drinks (1 of which also evaluated the effects of an almond drink), while only 2 focused on rice drinks. Among studies focused on soy drinks, the most investigated factors were anthropometric parameters (n = 13), the lipid profile (n = 8), markers of inflammation and/or oxidative stress (n = 7), glucose and insulin responses (n = 6) and blood pressure (n = 4). Despite some evidence of a beneficial effect of PBDs, especially for the lipid profile, it was not possible to draw any overall conclusions due to some conflicting results. As well as the low number of studies, a wide heterogeneity was found in terms of the characteristics of subjects, duration and markers, which reduces the strength of the available results. In conclusion, further studies are needed to better elucidate the effects of substituting CM with PBDs, especially in the long term.

Changes in physical activity patterns from adolescence to young adulthood: the BELINDA study.

Physical activity (PA) is recognized as a marker of health. The aim was to investigate PA differences from adolescence to young adulthood. European adolescents included in the HELENA study were invited to participate in a follow-up study, 10 years later. The present study included 141 adults (25.0 ± 1.4 years) for whom valid accelerometer data were available in adolescence and adulthood. Changes in PA by sex, weight and maternal education level were explored with interactions. Time spent in sedentary activity, light PA (LPA) and moderate PA (MPA) increased by 39.1, 59.6 and 6.6 min/day, respectively, whereas the time spent in vigorous PA (VPA) decreased by 11.3 min/day compared with adolescent VPA (p < 0.05). Increases in MPA were greater on weekends compared with weekdays, but we found a greater decrease in VPA on weekdays compared with weekends. Moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) decreased significantly on weekdays (-9.6 min/day; 95%CI, -15.9 to -3.4), while it increased on weekends (8.4 min/day; 95%CI, 1.9 to 14.8). Significant heterogeneity was found across sexes for VPA and MVPA, with a stronger decrease in VPA in males compared with females and a significant decrease in MVPA (-12.5 min/day; 95%CI, -20.4 to -4.5) in males but not in females (1.9 min/day; 95%CI, -5.5 to 9.2). No significant heterogeneity was found to be linked to maternal education level or weight, irrespective of PA level.  Conclusion: Our data suggest that the transition from adolescence to young adulthood is a critical period for lifestyle PA habits. A decline in VPA and an increasingly sedentary time were observed. The observed changes are worrying and may increase the risk of developing adverse health consequences later in life. What is Known: • The transition from adolescence to adulthood is marked by many life changes affecting lifestyle habits. Most studies tracking physical activity from adolescence to adulthood were done using PA questionnaires, which is a subjective method. What is New: • Our study bring first data on objective changes in PA patterns between adolescence and young adulthood, taking account of BMI, sex and maternal educational level. Our results suggest that the transition from adolescence to young adulthood is a critical period for lifestyle PA habits, especially for time spent on sedentary activities.

Clinical and physical characteristics of thinness in adolescents: the HELENA study.

PURPOSE: Thinness in adolescence has not been studied as extensively as overweight or obesity. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, characteristics, and health impacts of thinness in a European adolescent population. METHODS: This study included 2711 adolescents (1479 girls, 1232 boys). Blood pressure, physical fitness, sedentary behaviors, physical activity (PA), and dietary intake were assessed. A medical questionnaire was used to report any associated diseases. A blood sample was collected in a subgroup of the population. Thinness and normal weight were identified using the IOTF scale. Thin adolescents were compared with adolescents of normal weight. RESULTS: Two hundred and fourteen adolescents (7.9%) were classified as being thin; the prevalence rates were 8.6% in girls and 7.1% in boys. Systolic blood pressure was significantly lower in adolescents with thinness. The age at the first menstrual cycle was significantly later in thin female adolescents than in those with normal weight. Upper-body muscular strength measured in performance tests and time spent in light PA were significantly lower in thin adolescents. The Diet Quality Index was not significantly lower in thin adolescents, but the percentage of adolescents who skipped breakfast was higher in adolescents with a normal weight (27.7% vs 17.1%). Serum creatinine level and HOMA-insulin resistance were lower and vitamin B12 level was higher in thin adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: Thinness affects a notable proportion of European adolescents with no physical adverse health consequences.

Dietary assessment training: The Italian IV SCAI study on 10-74 year-old individuals' food consumption.

Dietary surveys are conducted to examine the population's dietary patterns that require a complex system of databases, and rules for constructing the data matrix (precision, coding, deriving new variables, e.g., body mass index from individual's height and weight, classes, e.g., age-class, socio-economic status, physical activity, etc.). Management of the data collection requires specialized fieldworkers to allow for the collection of harmonized and standardized data. In this way, only statistical variability is envisaged and any eventual biases are due to probabilistic distribution but data are not affected by inaccuracy. Training the fieldworkers is a crucial part of each dietary survey. The idea to provide constant training throughout the whole survey period, from the preparatory phase to the data collection phase, relies on the necessity to train fieldworkers and monitor the skills acquired during the study, in addition to helping fieldworkers to gain the necessary experience. This study aims to relate the experience in conducting the course path to high specialized interviewers who carried out the cycle devoted to the 10-74 age class of the fourth nationwide food consumption study in Italy (IV SCAI ADULT) according to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) guide. A course path was structured in three steps corresponding to the preparation, pilot, and collection phases. The whole path achieved the goal of collecting data related to 12 individuals by each participant, with an overall success rate (successful trainees/total participants) of 16.8% (84 out of an initial 500). The study aimed to provide good quality data in the short term and a highly specialized community in the long term. Surveillance nutritional systems can count on a highly skilled community, so decision-making in public health nutrition and a sustainable and healthy food system can rely on this infrastructure.

Food Supplement Use Differs from the Recommendations in Pregnant Women: A Multinational Survey.

The aim was to investigate, among pregnant women, (1) the use of food supplements and (2) the awareness of food supplement recommendations and beliefs about food supplement use in four European countries: Finland, Italy, Poland, and the United Kingdom. The participants (n = 1804) completed an online questionnaire with predefined statements. Daily intakes of vitamins and minerals were calculated using uploaded pictures or weblinks of the supplement packages. Country differences were assessed. Most participants (91%) used at least one food supplement during pregnancy. A prenatal multivitamin was the most commonly used supplement type (84% of the users), and 75% of the participants thought consumption of multivitamin is recommended. Of the participants, 81% knew that folic acid is recommended during pregnancy while 58% knew the recommendation for vitamin D. In 19% of the supplement users, the daily safe upper intake limit of at least one nutrient was exceeded. Nevertheless, most participants agreed that they knew which supplements (91%) and doses of supplements (87%) needed to be used during pregnancy. To conclude, the majority of the participants used food supplements, but lower proportions knew and adhered to the recommended intakes. Between-country differences were observed in the use and knowledge of and beliefs regarding supplements. The results suggest a need for assessment and monitoring of supplement use in antenatal care to ensure appropriate use.

Identification of Lifestyle Risk Factors in Adolescence Influencing Cardiovascular Health in Young Adults: The BELINDA Study.

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of mortality worldwide. These diseases originate in childhood, and a better understanding of their early determinants and risk factors would allow better prevention. The BELINDA (BEtter LIfe by Nutrition During Adulthood) study is a 10−14-year follow-up of the HEalthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence study (the HELENA study, a European cross-sectional study in adolescents). The study aims to evaluate cardiovascular risk using the PDAY (Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth) risk score during young adulthood (21−32 years), and to examine the impact of risk factors identified during adolescence (12.5−17.5 years). Our secondary objective is to compare the characteristics of the BELINDA study population with the HELENA population not participating in the follow-up study. The HELENA study recruited 3528 adolescents during 2006−2007 and reassessed 232 of them 10−14 years later as young adults. We assessed clinical status, anthropometry, nutrition, physical activity (including sedentary behavior), physical fitness, and mental health parameters, and collected biological samples (blood, stool, and hair). Dietary intake, and physical activity and fitness data were also collected. A multivariable linear regression model will be used for the analysis of the primary outcome. A Chi-square and T-test were conducted for the comparison of the descriptive data (gender, age, weight, height, body mass index (BMI), and maternal school level) between participating and non-participating BELINDA adolescents. When comparing the 1327 eligible subjects with the 232 included in the BELINDA study, no significant differences regarding gender (p = 0.72), age (p = 0.60), height (p = 0.11), and weight (p = 0.083) at adolescence were found. However, the participating population had a lower BMI (20.4 ± 3.1 kg/m2 versus 21.2 ± 3.6 kg/m2; p < 0.001) and a higher maternal educational level (46.8% high school or university level versus 38.6%; p = 0.027) than the HELENA population who did not participate in the BELINDA study. The complete phenotyping obtained at adolescence through the HELENA study is a unique opportunity to identify adolescent risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. This paper will serve as a methodological basis for future analysis of this study.

Social Environment and Food and Beverage Intake in European Adolescents: The Helena Study.

BACKGROUND: The family environment influences food consumption and behaviours, which impact adolescent's eating habits, diet and health. Young individuals who frequently eat family meals are less likely to develop risk- and behaviour-related outcomes as obesity. AIM: To assess the relationship between the family meal environment and food and macronutrient consumption in European adolescents. METHODS: 1,703 adolescents aged 12.5-17.5 years (46.5% male) from the European HELENA cross-sectional study were selected. Sociodemographic variables and dietary intake using two non-consecutive self-reported 24-hour dietary recalls were collected from all the included participants. The relationship between family meals' environment and food and macronutrient consumption was analized using analysis of covariance. RESULTS: Adolescents who used to take their main meals with their family were associated with high consumption of healthy foods and beverages (i.e. vegetables, fruit, milk, water) and low consumption of energy dense food and beverages as chocolate, savoury snacks, sugar or juices compared with those who used to eat alone, with friends or other people (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The company/people with whom adolescents consume their meal have an important influence on the adolescent's consumption of different types of food (especially at lunch). Family's environment during meals has been associated with a high consumption of healthy foods.

The 2018 Revision of Italian Dietary Guidelines: Development Process, Novelties, Main Recommendations, and Policy Implications.

The fourth edition of the Italian Dietary Guidelines (IDGs) for Healthy Eating was published in 2019. The objective of this paper is to describe the developmental process of IDGs, the main recommendations, the differences with previous revisions, and the concordance and differences with international guidance on a healthy diet. A National Commission oversaw IDG development. A Scientific Dossier (SD), including analysis on nutrition, health, and risk factors status in Italy, was the reference for IDGs preparation. The IDGs are based on the principles of the Mediterranean Diet and are mainly aimed to prevent obesity and nutrition-related non-communicable diseases. The IDGs included 13 directives that were divided into four conceptual blocks: i) how to balance weight; ii) foods to be promoted; iii) foods to be limited; and iv) how to ensure a varied and sustainable diet. Each directive has a box summarizing the key recommendation, myths lists, and false beliefs to be dispelled. The topics of sustainability and the correct approach to food supplementation and weight-loss diet were introduced in the present edition of IDGs. This paper contributes to the debate on the complexity of derivation of Dietary Guidelines and their adaptation to the national context.

Overweight/obesity and lifestyle factors among Italian adolescents: the ALIADO study.

BACKGROUND: Childhood obesity is associated with many lifestyle factors. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relationship between overweight/obesity and abdominal obesity and several lifestyle factors in a sample of Italian adolescents. METHODS: A representative cluster sample of 15-16-year-old adolescents in secondary school in the Lazio region (Italy) was recruited. Body weight, height and waist circumference were measured. Ponderal status was assessed by the IOTF and WHO definitions. Waist-to-height ratio (WtHR) cut-off of 0.5 was used to classify subjects with the highest cardiometabolic risk. Selected dietary habits and lifestyle characteristics were assessed by questionnaires. RESULTS: Three hundred sixty-nine adolescents (162 males and 207 females) were studied. Prevalence of overweight/obesity was 23.3%, according to the IOTF criteria with a higher percentage of males than females (30.2% vs. 17.9%; P=0.031), and 26% according to WHO references with significant differences between males and females (respectively, 33.9% vs. 19.8%; P=0.002). The WtHR≥0.5 was observed in 12.7% of the total sample with a higher percentage in males than in females (16% vs. 10.1%). Males reported an increased likelihood of being overweight or obese, as well as of having a WtHR≥0.5 (aOR 2.76 and 2.18, respectively). Adolescents that had breakfast regularly everyday were less likely to be overweight/obese and to have a WtHR≥0.5 (aOR 0.52 and 0.49, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: These results showed a high prevalence of overweight/obesity in the sample, and food habits and lifestyle not in accordance with recommendations, especially regarding breakfast. A Surveillance System of Italian adolescents should also be implemented through anthropometric measurement data to monitor the effectiveness of the policies to counteract obesity.

Eating behaviour, physical activity and lifestyle of Italian children during lockdown for COVID-19.

In March 2020 Italy went into lockdown due to COVID-19 pandemic and children changed rapidly their lifestyles with possible negative effects on their health status. An online survey collected data on eating habits, physical activity, perception/behaviour of 1027 Italian 2-11 years children during lockdown. The chi-square test was applied to test differences in proportions. Results showed a tendency of eating behaviour to worsen as children age and by areas. Only 32.3% of the children had high adherence to Mediterranean Diet, with better scores in 2-5 years children. 78.1% of the children stopped their habitual physical activity, with higher percentage among 6-11 and in Northern children; only 51.8% maintained some activities at home, playing mainly movement games/sports. Children spent more time on devices, missed school and friends, being more bored and less creative. This framework highlights the growing need for strategies to preserve children's health in this and future pandemics.

Interplay of physical activity and genetic variants of the endothelial lipase on cardiovascular disease risk factors.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate the association of endothelial lipase gene (LIPG) polymorphisms with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in adolescents and their interaction with physical activity. METHODS: Six polymorphisms of LIPG were genotyped in 1057 European adolescents (12-18 years old) enrolled in the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence (HELENA) Study. CVD risk factors related to lipid profile, blood pressure, adiposity and glucose regulation were recorded. Physical activity was objectively measured by accelerometry. RESULTS: The major C allele of rs2000813, the minor T allele of rs2276269 and the minor G allele of rs9951026 were associated with lower levels of several CVD risk factors related to lipid profile. We also found a significant association of the TTACA LIPG haplotype (rs2000812, rs2000813, rs8093249, rs2276269 and rs9951026) with higher concentrations of low-density cholesterol and apolipoprotein B. Finally, the interaction between physical activity and the polymorphisms rs2000813, rs2276269 and rs9951026 had a significant influence on several CVD risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: LIPG polymorphisms were significantly associated with CVD risk factors in European adolescents. Interestingly, alleles of these polymorphisms were associated with a better cardiovascular profile in physically active adolescents only. High physical activity may reduce the development of CVD, modulating its genetic risk. IMPACT: Using gene-phenotype and gene × environment analyses, we detected associations between the endothelial lipase gene and cardiovascular risk factors, along with interactions with physical activity. This study shows that physical activity may modulate the influence of LIPG gene on cardiovascular risk in adolescents. These results bring insights into the mechanisms by which physical activity positively influences CVD in adolescents.

Breakfast Dietary Pattern Is Inversely Associated with Overweight/Obesity in European Adolescents: The HELENA Study.

Obesity in children and adolescents is a public health problem and diet can play a major role in this condition. We aimed to identify sex-specific dietary patterns (DP) and to evaluate the association with overweight/obesity in European adolescents. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis with 2327 adolescents aged between 12.5 to 17.5 years from a multicenter study across Europe. The body mass index was categorized in "normal weight" and "overweight/obesity". Two non-consecutive 24-h dietary recalls were collected with a computerized self-reported software. Principal component factor analysis was used to identify DP. Mixed-effect logistic regression models were used to evaluate the association between the sex-specific DP and overweight/obesity outcome. As a result, we found three DP in boys (snacking and bread, Mediterranean diet, and breakfast) and four DP in girls (convenience, plant-based and eggs, Western, and breakfast). The association between DP and overweight/obesity highlights that those adolescents with higher adherence to the breakfast DP had lower odds for overweight/obesity, even after the inclusion of covariables in the adjustments. In European adolescents, the breakfast DP positively characterized by breakfast cereals, fruit, milk, and dairy and negatively characterized by sugar-sweetened beverages in boys and negatively characterized by cereals (pasta, rice, and others) in girls, was inversely associated with overweight/obesity.

Corrigendum: A Dietary Assessment Training Course Path: The Italian IV SCAI Study on Children Food Consumption.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.590315.].

The Association between Portion Sizes from High-Energy-Dense Foods and Body Composition in European Adolescents: The HELENA Study.

Obesity prevalence has been simultaneously increasing with high consumption of large food portion sizes (PS). However, there is scarce information on PS of energy-dense (ED) foods as a potential risk factor of obesity in adolescents. In the present study, we investigate the association between the PS of the most ED foods and body composition. A sample of 1889 adolescents (54.4% females) from the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence cross-sectional multicenter study (HELENA-CSS) study were included. Most ED foods (e.g., cheese) were selected according to higher fat and/or sugar content and low fiber and water. Linear and ordinal logistic regression models were adjusted for age, physical activity, total energy intake (TEI), and socioeconomic status (SES). Analysis was performed both in those adolescents reporting plausible energy intake according to the approach of Goldberg et al. and in the whole sample. In male plausible reporters, PS from "breakfast cereals" showed a significant and positive association with BMI (ß = 0.012; 0.048). PS from "carbonated soft drinks" in males (OR = 1.001; 95% CI 1.000; 1.002) and "bread and rolls" in females (OR = 1.002; 95% CI 1.000; 1.004) were associated with higher probability of having obesity, while "sweet bakery products" were associated with lower probability of having obesity (OR = 0.996; 95% CI 0.991; 0.999) in females. The present study suggests association between PS of ED foods and obesity in European adolescents. Prospective studies are needed to examine the effect of prolonged exposure to large PS and obesity development.

A Dietary Assessment Training Course Path: The Italian IV SCAI Study on Children Food Consumption.

The eating patterns in a population can be estimated through dietary surveys in which open-ended assessment methods, such as diaries and interviews, or semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaires are administered. A harmonized dietary survey methodology, together with a standardized operational procedure, in conducting the study is crucial to ensure the comparability of the results and the accuracy of information, thus reducing uncertainty and increasing the reliability of the results. Dietary patterns (i) include several target variables (foods, energy and nutrients, other food components), (ii) require several explanatory variables (age, gender, anthropometric measurements, socio-cultural and economic characteristics, lifestyle, preferences, attitudes, beliefs, organization of food-related activities, etc.), and (iii) have impacts in several domains: imbalance diets; acute and chronic exposures affect health, specifically non-communicable diseases; and then sanitary expenditure. On the other hand, food demand has impacts on the food system: production, distribution, and food services system; food wastes and other wastes generated by food-related activities of the households (e.g., packaging disposal) have consequences on the "health of the planet" which in turn can have effects on human health. Harmonization and standardization of measurement methods and procedures in such a complex context require an ad hoc structured information system made by databases (food nomenclatures, portion sizes, food atlas, recipes) and methodological tools (quantification methods, food coding systems, assessment of nutritional status, data processing to extrapolate what we consider validated dietary data). Establishing a community of professionals specialized in dietary data management could lead to build a surveillance system for monitoring eating habits in the short term, thus reducing costs, and to arrange a training re-training system. Creating and maintaining the dietary data managers community is challenging but possible. In this context, the cooperation between the CREA Research Centre for Food and Nutrition and the Italian National Health Institute (ISS) promoted and supported by the Italian Ministry of Health may represent a model of best practice that can ensure a continuous training for the professional community carrying out a nutritional study.

Mediterranean Diet, Screen-Time-Based Sedentary Behavior and Their Interaction Effect on Adiposity in European Adolescents: The HELENA Study.

Childhood obesity is a worldwide epidemic. Mediterranean diet (MD) is inversely associated with childhood obesity, but the interaction with other environmental factors, such screen time, might influence the health benefits of a high MD adherence in adolescents. The aim of the present study was to assess whether an association between MD and screen time exists in European adolescents. Moreover, we also explored whether sedentary time has a modulatory effect on the association between MD and adiposity. Adherence to the MD (24 h recalls), screen time (questionnaire), pubertal development, body mass index (BMI), fat mass index (FMI) and waist circumference (WC) were evaluated in 2053 adolescents (54.7% females), aged 12.5-17.5 years. In females, MD adherence was associated with lower BMI and FMI only when they were exposed to less than 338 min/day of screen time (81.8% of females); MD adherence was also associated with lower WC only when females were exposed to less than 143 min/day of screen time (31.5% of females). No significant MD-screen time interaction was observed in males. In conclusion, screen-time-based sedentary behaviours had a modulatory effect in the association between MD adherence and adiposity in European female adolescents.

Interaction Effect of the Mediterranean Diet and an Obesity Genetic Risk Score on Adiposity and Metabolic Syndrome in Adolescents: The HELENA Study.

Obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS) are worldwide major health challenges. The Mediterranean diet (MD) is associated with a better cardiometabolic profile, but these beneficial effects may be influenced by genetic variations, modulating the predisposition to obesity or MetS. The aim was to assess whether interaction effects occur between an obesity genetic risk score (obesity-GRS) and the MD on adiposity and MetS in European adolescents. Multiple linear regression models were used to assess the interaction effects of an obesity-GRS and the MD on adiposity and MetS and its components. Interaction effects between the MD on adiposity and MetS were observed in both sex groups (p < 0.05). However, those interaction effects were only expressed in a certain number of adolescents, when a limited number of risk alleles were present. Regarding adiposity, a total of 51.1% males and 98.7% females had lower body mass index (BMI) as a result of higher MD adherence. Concerning MetS, only 9.9% of males with higher MD adherence had lower MetS scores. However, the same effect was observed in 95.2% of females. In conclusion, obesity-related genotypes could modulate the relationship between MD adherence and adiposity and MetS in European adolescents; the interaction effect was higher in females than in males.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms of ADIPOQ gene associated with cardiovascular disease risk factors in European adolescents: the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence study.

OBJECTIVES: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are responsible of 31% of all deaths worldwide. Genetic predisposition to CVDs in adolescents remains largely unknown. Aims of present research are to examine the association of ADIPOQ gene polymorphisms with cardiovascular disease risk factors in European adolescents. METHODS: A total of 14 polymorphisms in the ADIPOQ gene were genotyped in 1057 European adolescents (12-18 years old) from the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence Cross-Sectional Study. We measured serum lipids and a CVD risk score, along with weight, height, triceps, and subscapular skinfold thickness, leptin, insulin and other markers of glucose regulation. RESULTS: The rs822393, rs822395 and rs7649121 polymorphisms of ADIPOQ gene were significantly associated with several CVD risk factors [i.e. high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), apolipoprotein (Apo) A1, SBP and CVD risk score] in European adolescents. We also found an association of the TGAAGT ADIPOQ haplotype (rs822393, rs16861210, rs822395, rs822396, rs12495941 and rs7649121) with HDL-C and ApoA1 levels. CONCLUSION: Several individual polymorphisms (rs822393, rs822395 and rs7649121) and a haplotype of ADIPOQ gene were significantly associated with cardiovascular disease risk factors in European adolescents.