Combination therapy improves vascular volume in female rats with pulmonary hypertension.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a female predominant disease in which progressive vascular remodeling and vasoconstriction result in right ventricular (RV) failure and death. Most PAH patients utilize multiple therapies. In contrast, the majority of preclinical therapeutic studies are performed in male rats with a single novel drug often markedly reversing disease in the model. We sought to differentiate single drug therapy from combination therapy in female rats with severe disease. One week after left pneumonectomy, we induced PH in young female Sprague-Dawley rats with an injection of monocrotaline (45 mg/kg). Female rats were then randomized to receive combination therapy (ambrisentan plus tadalafil), ambrisentan monotherapy, tadalafil monotherapy, or vehicle. We measured RV size and function on two serial echocardiograms during the development of disease. We measured RV systolic pressure (RVSP) invasively at day 28 after monocrotaline before analyzing the vascular volume with microcomputed tomography (microCT) of the right middle lobe. RVSP was significantly lower in female rats treated with combination therapy, and combination therapy resulted in increased small vessel volume density measured by microCT compared with untreated rats. Combination-treated rats had the smallest RV end-diastolic diameter on echocardiogram as compared with the other groups. In summary, we report a female model of pulmonary hypertension that can distinguish between one and two drug therapies; this model may facilitate better preclinical drug testing for novel compounds.

TSP1-CD47 signaling is upregulated in clinical pulmonary hypertension and contributes to pulmonary arterial vasculopathy and dysfunction.

AIMS: Thrombospondin-1 (TSP1) is a ligand for CD47 and TSP1-/- mice are protected from pulmonary hypertension (PH). We hypothesized the TSP1-CD47 axis is upregulated in human PH and promotes pulmonary arterial vasculopathy. METHODS AND RESULTS: We analyzed the molecular signature and functional response of lung tissue and distal pulmonary arteries (PAs) from individuals with (n = 23) and without (n = 16) PH. Compared with controls, lungs and distal PAs from PH patients showed induction of TSP1-CD47 and endothelin-1/endothelin A receptor (ET-1/ETA) protein and mRNA. In control PAs, treatment with exogenous TSP1 inhibited vasodilation and potentiated vasoconstriction to ET-1. Treatment of diseased PAs from PH patients with a CD47 blocking antibody improved sensitivity to vasodilators. Hypoxic wild type (WT) mice developed PH and displayed upregulation of pulmonary TSP1, CD47, and ET-1/ETA concurrent with down regulation of the transcription factor cell homolog of the v-myc oncogene (cMyc). In contrast, PH was attenuated in hypoxic CD47-/- mice while pulmonary TSP1 and ET-1/ETA were unchanged and cMyc was overexpressed. In CD47-/- pulmonary endothelial cells cMyc was increased and ET-1 decreased. In CD47+/+ cells, forced induction of cMyc suppressed ET-1 transcript, whereas suppression of cMyc increased ET-1 signaling. Furthermore, disrupting TSP1-CD47 signaling in pulmonary smooth muscle cells abrogated ET-1-stimulated hypertrophy. Finally, a CD47 antibody given 2 weeks after monocrotaline challenge in rats upregulated pulmonary cMyc and improved aberrations in PH-associated cardiopulmonary parameters. CONCLUSIONS: In pre-clinical models of PH CD47 targets cMyc to increase ET-1 signaling. In clinical PH TSP1-CD47 is upregulated, and in both, contributes to pulmonary arterial vasculopathy and dysfunction.

Transcriptomic Analysis Identifies the Effect of Beta-Blocking Agents on a Molecular Pathway of Contraction in the Heart and Predicts Response to Therapy.

Over the last decades, beta-blockers have been a key component of heart failure therapy. However, currently there is no method to identify patients who will benefit from beta-blocking therapy versus those who will be unresponsive or worsen. Furthermore, there is an unmet need to better understand molecular mechanisms through which heart failure therapies, such as beta-blockers, improve cardiac function, in order to design novel targeted therapies. Solving these issues is an important step towards personalized medicine. Here, we present a comprehensive transcriptomic analysis of molecular pathways that are affected by beta-blocking agents and a transcriptomic biomarker to predict therapy response.

Sex and menopause differences in response to tadalafil: 6-minute walk distance and time to clinical worsening.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a female-predominant disease, but there are little data on treatment response by sex and menopausal status. In this retrospective analysis of the Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Response to Tadalafil (PHIRST) randomized clinical trial, we assessed treatment response between the sexes by examining change in 6-minute walk distance (6MWD) and time to clinical worsening (TCW). We examined the effect of menopausal status on the same treatment measures. 6MWD was recorded before and after 16 weeks of treatment with tadalafil or placebo in the PHIRST study cohort of 340 subjects (264 females, 76 males). A univariate analysis was used to assess the effect of sex on change in 6MWD and TCW. Multivariate linear regression and Cox proportional hazards models were built for 6MWD and TCW, respectively. Women were subdivided by age as a surrogate for menopausal status. The linear trend test and the log-rank test were performed on change in 6MWD and TCW by age. For tadalafil-treated patients, a significant difference in change in 6MWD by sex (mean: 48.6 m for males vs. 34.7 m for females; P = 0.01) was found, but it was not significant in multivariate analysis (P = 0.08). There was a trend toward a female age-dependent effect in change in 6MWD; the premenopausal group showed the greatest improvement. A significant sex- or age-dependent effect on TCW was not present. In conclusion, this retrospective analysis of the PHIRST trial suggests that men and premenopausal women may experience greater functional improvement when treated with tadalafil than older women, but there was no consistent sex or menopausal effect on TCW.

Subacute Hemolysis in Sickle Cell Mice Causes Priapism Secondary to NO Imbalance and PDE5 Dysregulation.

INTRODUCTION: Recent research suggests that priapism in sickle cell disease (SCD) is due to dysregulation of penile erection homeostasis including alteration of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) activities by excessive levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) released during hemolysis. It is unknown if subacute exposure to hemolysis is sufficient or if chronic reconditioning of erectile tissues is required for perturbation of homeostatic pathways and whether PDE5 inhibitor (PDE5I) treatment can restore erectile homeostasis in the subacute setting. AIMS: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of subacute hemolysis (3-month exposure) on priapism and NO pathway regulation. METHODS: Mice underwent bone marrow transplantation with either SCD (BM-SS) or wild-type (WT) bone marrow. BM-SS mice were treated with sildenafil 100 mg/kg/day. We measured intracavernous pressure (ICP) measurements with or without cavernous nerve stimulation following bone marrow transplantation to assess for priapism. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: ICP and frequency of erections were assessed. Penile tissues were analyzed for NOS, protein kinase G (PKG), PDE5, and ROS activities. RESULTS: BM-SS mice demonstrated a priapism phenotype. PDE5I treatment reduced the frequency of erections in BM-SS mice (1.7 ± 1.1 vs. 5.5 ± 2.8 erections per hour, P < 0.05). Penile tissues from BM-SS mice demonstrated decreased NOS, PKG, PDE5 and elevated ROS activities compared with that of control mice. PDE5I treatment increased NOS (11.6 ± 1.3% vs. 7.8 ± 2.3%, P < 0.05) and PDE5 (76.3 ± 9.8% vs. 52.3 ± 11.1%, P < 0.05) activities and decreased ROS activity (137.8 ± 12.1% vs. 199.1 ± 11.3%, P < 0.05) compared with non-PDE5I treated BM-SS mice. PKG activity was increased beyond control levels with PDE5I treatment (158.4 ± 10.3%, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Short-term hemolysis is sufficient to establish a priapism phenotype and results in loss of erectile function. PDE5I treatment ameliorates priapism, in part, because of restored NO balance with decreased ROS generation and increased PDE5 activity.

Characterization of right ventricular remodeling in pulmonary hypertension associated with patient outcomes by 3-dimensional wall motion tracking echocardiography.

BACKGROUND: Adverse right ventricular (RV) remodeling has significant prognostic and therapeutic implications to patients with pulmonary hypertension (PH). However, differentiating RV adaption from adverse remodeling associated with poor outcomes is difficult. We hypothesized that novel 3-dimensional (3D) wall motion tracking echocardiography can differentiate morphological features of RV adaption from adverse remodeling heralding an unfavorable short-term prognosis in patients with PH. METHODS AND RESULTS: We studied 112 subjects: 92 patients with PH and 20 normal controls with 3D wall motion tracking for RV end-systolic volume index (ESVi), RV ejection fraction (EF), and RV global area strain. Patients with PH also had invasive hemodynamic measurements. Pressure-volume relations classified patients with PH into 3 groups, such as RV adapted, RV adapted-remodeled, and RV adverse-remodeled. The predefined combined end point was PH-related hospitalization, death, or lung surgery (lung transplantation or pulmonary endarterectomy) during 6 months. The 92 patients with PH had significantly larger RV volumes, lower RVEF and global area strain than normal controls as expected. Patients with PH classified as RV adapted (ESVi, ≤72 mL/m(2)) had a more favorable clinical outcome than those classified as RV adapted-remodeled (ESVi, 73-113 mL/m(2)) or RV adverse-remodeled (ESVi, ≥114 mL/m(2)): hazard ratio, 0.15; 95% confidence intervals, 0.07 to 0.39; P<0.0001. RV adverse-remodeled patients (ESVi, ≥114 mL/m(2)) had worse short-term outcome than the RV adapted-remodeled patients: hazard ratio, 2.2; 95% confidence interval, 0.91 to 5.39; P=0.04. CONCLUSIONS: Quantitative 3D echocardiography in patients with PH demonstrated morphological subsets of RV adaption and remodeling associated with clinical outcomes.

RV-pulmonary arterial coupling predicts outcome in patients referred for pulmonary hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: Prognosis in pulmonary hypertension (PH) is largely determined by RV function. However, uncertainty remains about what metrics of RV function might be most clinically relevant. The purpose of this study was to assess the clinical relevance of metrics of RV functional adaptation to increased afterload. METHODS: Patients referred for PH underwent right heart catheterisation and RV volumetric assessment within 48 h. A RV maximum pressure (Pmax) was calculated from the RV pressure curve. The adequacy of RV systolic functional adaptation to increased afterload was estimated either by a stroke volume (SV)/end-systolic volume (ESV) ratio, a Pmax/mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) ratio, or by EF (RVEF). Diastolic function of the RV was estimated by a diastolic elastance coefficient ß. Survival analysis was via Cox proportional HR, and Kaplan-Meier with the primary outcome of time to death or lung transplant. RESULTS: Patients (n=50; age 58±13 yrs) covered a range of mPAP (13-79 mm Hg) with an average RVEF of 39±17% and ESV of 143±89 mL. Average estimates of the ratio of end-systolic ventricular to arterial elastance were 0.79±0.67 (SV/ESV) and 2.3±0.65 (Pmax/mPAP-1). Transplantation-free survival was predicted by right atrial pressure, mPAP, pulmonary vascular resistance, ß, SV, ESV, SV/ESV and RVEF, but after controlling for right atrial pressure, mPAP, and SV, SV/ESV was the only independent predictor. CONCLUSIONS: The adequacy of RV functional adaptation to afterload predicts survival in patients referred for PH. Whether this can simply be evaluated using RV volumetric imaging will require additional confirmation.

Structural and mechanical adaptations of right ventricle free wall myocardium to pressure overload.

Right ventricular (RV) failure in response to pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a severe disease that remains poorly understood. PH-induced pressure overload leads to changes in the RV free wall (RVFW) that eventually results in RV failure. While the development of computational models can benefit our understanding of the onset and progression of PH-induced pressure overload, detailed knowledge of the underlying structural and biomechanical events remains limited. The goal of the present study was to elucidate the structural and biomechanical adaptations of RV myocardium subjected to sustained pressure overload in a rat model. Hemodynamically confirmed severe chronic RV pressure overload was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats via pulmonary artery banding. Extensive tissue-level biaxial mechanical and histomorphological analyses were conducted to assess the remodeling response in the RV free wall. Simultaneous myofiber hypertrophy and longitudinal re-orientation of myo- and collagen fibers were observed, with both fiber types becoming more highly aligned. Transmural myo- and collagen fiber orientations were co-aligned in both the normal and diseased state. The overall tissue stiffness increased, with larger increases in longitudinal vs. circumferential stiffness. The latter was attributed to longitudinal fiber re-orientation, which increased the degree of anisotropy. Increased mechanical coupling between the two axes was attributed to the increased fiber alignment. Interestingly, estimated myofiber stiffness increased while the collagen fiber stiffness remained unchanged. The increased myofiber stiffness was consistent with clinical results showing titin-associated increased sarcomeric stiffening observed in PH patients. These results further our understanding of the underlying adaptive and maladaptive remodeling mechanisms and may lead to improved techniques for prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment for PH.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension: the clinical syndrome.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension is a progressive disorder in which endothelial dysfunction and vascular remodeling obstruct small pulmonary arteries, resulting in increased pulmonary vascular resistance and pulmonary pressures. This leads to reduced cardiac output, right heart failure, and ultimately death. In this review, we attempt to answer some important questions commonly asked by patients diagnosed with pulmonary arterial hypertension pertaining to the disease, and aim to provide an explanation in terms of classification, diagnosis, pathophysiology, genetic causes, demographics, and prognostic factors. Furthermore, important molecular pathways that are central to the pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial hypertension are reviewed, including nitric oxide, prostacyclin, endothelin-1, reactive oxygen species, and endothelial and smooth muscle proliferation.

Cardiac CD47 drives left ventricular heart failure through Ca2+-CaMKII-regulated induction of HDAC3.

BACKGROUND: Left ventricular heart failure (LVHF) remains progressive and fatal and is a formidable health problem because ever-larger numbers of people are diagnosed with this disease. Therapeutics, while relieving symptoms and extending life in some cases, cannot resolve this process and transplant remains the option of last resort for many. Our team has described a widely expressed cell surface receptor (CD47) that is activated by its high-affinity secreted ligand, thrombospondin 1 (TSP1), in acute injury and chronic disease; however, a role for activated CD47 in LVHF has not previously been proposed. METHODS AND RESULTS: In experimental LVHF TSP1-CD47 signaling is increased concurrent with up-regulation of cardiac histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3). Mice mutated to lack CD47 displayed protection from transverse aortic constriction (TAC)-driven LVHF with enhanced cardiac function, decreased cellular hypertrophy and fibrosis, decreased maladaptive autophagy, and decreased expression of HDAC3. In cell culture, treatment of cardiac myocyte CD47 with a TSP1-derived peptide, which binds and activates CD47, increased HDAC3 expression and myocyte hypertrophy in a Ca(2+)/calmodulin protein kinase II (CaMKII)-dependent manner. Conversely, antibody blocking of CD47 activation, or pharmacologic inhibition of CaMKII, suppressed HDAC3 expression, decreased myocyte hypertrophy, and mitigated established LVHF. Downstream gene suppression of HDAC3 mimicked the protective effects of CD47 blockade and decreased hypertrophy in myocytes and mitigated LVHF in animals. CONCLUSIONS: These data identify a proximate role for the TSP1-CD47 axis in promoting LVHF by CaKMII-mediated up-regulation of HDAC3 and suggest novel therapeutic opportunities.

Isolated right ventricular dysfunction in patients with human immunodeficiency virus.

BACKGROUND: HIV-infected individuals are at increased risk for pulmonary hypertension and cardiomyopathy, portending a poor prognosis. Right ventricular (RV) dysfunction is associated with worse outcomes in these conditions, yet its prevalence is poorly defined in HIV. We sought to determine the prevalence of RV dysfunction in an outpatient HIV cohort. METHODS: Echocardiograms were evaluated from 104 HIV-infected adults. Measurements included estimated pulmonary arterial systolic pressure (PASP) and several measures of RV function, including tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), RV longitudinal myocardial strain (RVLMS), RV fractional area change (RVFAC), and myocardial performance index (MPI). RESULTS: Sixteen subjects (15%) had PASP >35 mm Hg, yet RV function did not differ significantly from those with normal estimated PASP. RV dysfunction defined by RVFAC <35% occurred in 11%. RVLMS had a median value of -27.3%, and individuals below the median had lower TAPSE but no differences in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), PASP, or other measures. Dyspnea was associated with the lowest quintile of RVLMS (≥-21.05%). There were 6 subjects with LVEF <50%, and these individuals had lower TAPSE but no differences in PASP or other RV functional measures. CONCLUSIONS: RV dysfunction was common as estimated PASP >35 mm Hg and LV dysfunction, but these findings did not cosegregate. RV dysfunction in HIV-infected individuals may be a separate entity from LV/global cardiomyopathy or pulmonary hypertension and deserves further study.

Biocompatibility Assessment of the CentriMag-Novalung Adult ECMO Circuit in a Model of Acute Pulmonary Hypertension.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is rarely used in patients with severe pulmonary hypertension (PH) as a bridge to lung transplantation. In this study, we assess the blood biocompatibility of the integrated CentriMag-Novalung ECMO system (venoarterial) in an acute model of PH. Severe PH (≥2/3 systemic) was induced in eight sheep through progressive ligation of the main pulmonary artery. System performance, platelet activation, thromboelastography (TEG) parameters, fibrinogen, plasma-free hemoglobin, and total plasma protein were measured at initiation, 3, and 6 hr of support in the ECMO (N = 4) and sham (N = 4) groups. A stable ECMO flow (2.2 ± 0.1 L/min), low transmembrane pressure gradient, and steady blood O2 and CO2 levels were maintained. Platelet activation was low (<4%) in both the groups, whereas platelet responsiveness to agonist (platelet activating factor) was reduced in the sham group when compared with the ECMO group. There were no differences in the TEG parameters, fibrinogen concentration, plasma-free hemoglobin (<10 mg/dl), and plasma total protein between the two groups. The findings of low levels of platelet activation and plfHb suggest adequate blood biocompatibility of the integrated CentriMag-Novalung circuit use for short-term support in a model of PH.

Fatty acid nitroalkenes ameliorate glucose intolerance and pulmonary hypertension in high-fat diet-induced obesity.

AIMS: Obesity is a risk factor for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, with the incidence of these disorders becoming epidemic. Pathogenic responses to obesity have been ascribed to adipose tissue (AT) dysfunction that promotes bioactive mediator secretion from visceral AT and the initiation of pro-inflammatory events that induce oxidative stress and tissue dysfunction. Current understanding supports that suppressing pro-inflammatory and oxidative events promotes improved metabolic and cardiovascular function. In this regard, electrophilic nitro-fatty acids display pleiotropic anti-inflammatory signalling actions. METHODS AND RESULTS: It was hypothesized that high-fat diet (HFD)-induced inflammatory and metabolic responses, manifested by loss of glucose tolerance and vascular dysfunction, would be attenuated by systemic administration of nitrooctadecenoic acid (OA-NO2). Male C57BL/6j mice subjected to a HFD for 20 weeks displayed increased adiposity, fasting glucose, and insulin levels, which led to glucose intolerance and pulmonary hypertension, characterized by increased right ventricular (RV) end-systolic pressure (RVESP) and pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR). This was associated with increased lung xanthine oxidoreductase (XO) activity, macrophage infiltration, and enhanced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Left ventricular (LV) end-diastolic pressure remained unaltered, indicating that the HFD produces pulmonary vascular remodelling, rather than LV dysfunction and pulmonary venous hypertension. Administration of OA-NO2 for the final 6.5 weeks of HFD improved glucose tolerance and significantly attenuated HFD-induced RVESP, PVR, RV hypertrophy, lung XO activity, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory pulmonary cytokine levels. CONCLUSIONS: These observations support that the pleiotropic signalling actions of electrophilic fatty acids represent a therapeutic strategy for limiting the complex pathogenic responses instigated by obesity.

Sildenafil promotes eNOS activation and inhibits NADPH oxidase in the transgenic sickle cell mouse penis.

INTRODUCTION: Sickle cell disease (SCD)-associated vasculopathy in the penis is characterized by aberrant nitric oxide and phosphodiesterase (PDE) 5 signaling, and by increased oxidative stress. Preliminary clinical trials show that continuous treatment with PDE5 inhibitor sildenafil unassociated with sexual activity decreases priapic activity in patients with SCD. However, the mechanism of its vasculoprotective effect in the penis remains unclear. AIMS: We evaluated whether continuous administration of PDE5 inhibitor sildenafil promotes eNOS function at posttranslational levels and decreases superoxide-producing enzyme NADPH oxidase activity in the sickle cell mouse penis. METHODS: SCD transgenic mice were used as an animal model of SCD. WT mice served as controls. Mice received treatment with the PDE5 inhibitor sildenafil (100 mg/kg/day) or vehicle for 3 weeks. eNOS phosphorylation on Ser-1177 (positive regulatory site), eNOS interactions with heat-shock protein 90 (HSP90) (positive regulator), phosphorylated AKT (upstream mediator of eNOS phosphorylation on Ser-1177), an NADPH oxidase catalytic subunit gp91(phox), and a marker of oxidative stress (4-hydroxy-2-nonenal [HNE]) were measured by Western blot. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Effect of continuous sildenafil treatment on eNOS posttranslational activation, NADPH oxidase catalytic subunit, and oxidative stress in the penis of the sickle cell mouse. RESULTS: Continuous treatment with sildenafil reversed (P < 0.05) the abnormalities in protein expressions of P-eNOS (Ser-1177), eNOS/HSP90 interaction, P-AKT, protein expression of gp91(phox), and 4-HNE, in the sickle cell mouse penis. Sildenafil treatment of WT mice did not affect any of these parameters. CONCLUSION: Our findings that sildenafil enhances eNOS activation and inhibits NADPH oxidase function in the sickle cell mouse penis offers a vasculoprotective molecular basis for the therapeutic effect of sildenafil in the penis in association with SCD.

Nox-derived ROS are acutely activated in pressure overload pulmonary hypertension: indications for a seminal role for mitochondrial Nox4.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension is a severe progressive disease with marked morbidity and high mortality in which right ventricular (RV) failure is the major cause of death. Thus knowledge of the mechanisms underlying RV failure is an area of active interest. Previous studies suggest a role of NADPH oxidase in cardiomyocyte dysfunction in the left heart. Here we postulate that acute pressure overload induced by pulmonary artery banding (PAB) leads to a Nox4-initiated increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mouse RV that may lead to feed-forward induction of Nox2. To test our hypothesis, ROS production was measured in RV and left ventricle homogenates. The data show that hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), but not superoxide anion (O2(·-)), was increased in the early phases (within 6 h) of PAB in RV and that this increase was diminished by catalase and diphenyleneiodonium chloride but not by SOD, N(ω)-nitro-l-arginin methyl ester, febuxostat, or indomethacin. H2O2 production in RV was not attenuated in Nox2 null mice subjected to 6 h PAB. Moreover, we observed an upregulation of Nox4 mRNA after 1 h of PAB and an increase in mitochondrial Nox4 protein 6 h post-PAB. In contrast, we observed an increase in Nox2 mRNA 1 day post-PAB. Expression of antioxidant enzymes SOD, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase did not change, but catalase activity increased 6 h post-PAB. Taken together, these findings show a role of mitochondria-localized Nox4 in the early phase of PAB and suggest an involvement of this isozyme in early ROS generation possibly contributing to progression of RV dysfunction and failure.

Endothelial Krüppel-like factor 4 modulates pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) is a transcription factor expressed in the vascular endothelium, where it promotes anti-inflammatory and anticoagulant states, and increases endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression. We examined the role of endothelial KLF4 in pulmonary arterial (PA) hypertension (PAH). Mice with endothelial KLF4 knockdown were exposed to hypoxia for 3 weeks, followed by measurement of right ventricular and PA pressures, pulmonary vascular muscularization, and right ventricular hypertrophy. The effect of KLF4 on target gene expression was assessed in lungs from these mice, verified in vitro by small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of KLF4, and further studied at the promoter level with cotransfection experiments. KLF4 expression was measured in lung tissue from patients with PAH and normal control subjects. We found that, after hypoxia, right ventricular and PA pressures were significantly higher in KLF4 knockdown animals than controls. Knockdown animals also had more severe pulmonary vascular muscularization and right ventricular hypertrophy. KLF4 knockdown resulted in increased pulmonary expression of endothelin-1 and decreased expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase, endothelin receptor subtype B, and prostacyclin synthase. Concordant findings were observed in vitro, both with siRNA knockdown of KLF4 and promoter activity assays. Finally, KLF4 expression was reduced in lungs from patients with PAH. In conclusion, endothelial KLF4 regulates the transcription of genes involved in key pathways implicated in PAH, and its loss exacerbates pulmonary hypertension in response to chronic hypoxia in mice. These results introduce a novel transcriptional modulator of PAH, with the potential of becoming a new therapeutic target.

Nerve regeneration and elastin formation within poly(glycerol sebacate)-based synthetic arterial grafts one-year post-implantation in a rat model.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the long-term performance of cell-free vascular grafts made from a fast-degrading elastic polymer. We fabricated small arterial grafts from microporous tubes of poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) reinforced with polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibers on the outer surface. Grafts were interpositioned in rat abdominal aortas and characterized at 1 year post-implant. Grafts remodeled into "neoarteries" (regenerated arteries) with similar gross appearance to native rat aortas. Neoarteries mimic arterial tissue architecture with a confluent endothelium and media and adventita-like layers. Patent vessels (80%) showed no significant stenosis, dilation, or calcification. Neoarteries contain nerves and have the same amount of mature elastin as native arteries. Despite some differences in matrix organization, regenerated arteries had similar dynamic mechanical compliance to native arteries in vivo. Neoarteries responded to vasomotor agents, albeit with different magnitude than native aortas. These data suggest that an elastic vascular graft that resorbs quickly has potential to improve the performance of vascular grafts used in small arteries. This design may also promote constructive remodeling in other soft tissues.

Effects of acute intravenous iloprost on right ventricular hemodynamics in rats with chronic pulmonary hypertension.

The inotropic effects of prostacyclins in chronic pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) are unclear and may be important in directing patient management in the acute setting. We sought to study the effects of an acute intravenous (IV) infusion of iloprost on right ventricular (RV) contractility in a rat model of chronic PAH. Rats were treated with monocrotaline, 60 mg/kg intraperitoneally, to induce PAH. Six weeks later, baseline hemodynamic assessment was performed with pressure-volume and Doppler flow measurements. In one group of animals, measurements were repeated 10-15 minutes after IV infusion of a fixed dose of iloprost (20 µg/kg). A separate group of rats underwent dose-response assessment. RV contractility and RV-pulmonary artery coupling were assessed by the end-systolic pressure-volume relationship (ESPVR) and end-systolic elastance/effective arterial elastance (Ees/Ea). RV cardiomyocytes were isolated, and intracellular cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) concentration was measured with a cAMP-specific enzyme immunoassay kit. Animals had evidence of PAH and RV hypertrophy. Right ventricle/(left ventricle + septum) weight was 0.40 ± 0.03. RV systolic pressure (RVSP) was 39.83 ± 1.62 mmHg. Administration of iloprost demonstrated an increase in the slope of the ESPVR from 0.29 ± 0.02 to 0.42 ± 0.05 (P < .05). Ees/Ea increased from 0.63 ± 0.07 to 0.82 ± 0.06 (P < .05). The RV contractility index (max dP/dt normalized for instantaneous pressure) increased from 94.11 to 114.5/s (P < .05), as did the RV ejection fraction, from 48.0% to 52.5% (P < .05). This study suggests a positive inotropic effect of iloprost on a rat model of chronic PAH.

Transforming growth factor-ß signaling promotes pulmonary hypertension caused by Schistosoma mansoni.

BACKGROUND: The pathogenic mechanisms underlying pulmonary arterial hypertension resulting from schistosomiasis, one of the most common causes of pulmonary hypertension worldwide, remain unknown. We hypothesized that transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) signaling as a consequence of Th2 inflammation is critical for the pathogenesis of this disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: Mice sensitized and subsequently challenged with Schistosoma mansoni eggs developed pulmonary hypertension associated with an increase in right ventricular systolic pressure, thickening of the pulmonary artery media, and right ventricular hypertrophy. Rho-kinase-dependent vasoconstriction accounted for ≈60% of the increase in right ventricular systolic pressure. The pulmonary vascular remodeling and pulmonary hypertension were dependent on increased TGF-ß signaling, as pharmacological blockade of the TGF-ß ligand and receptor, and mice lacking Smad3 were significantly protected from Schistosoma-induced pulmonary hypertension. Blockade of TGF-ß signaling also led to a decrease in interleukin-4 and interleukin-13 concentrations, which drive the Th2 responses characteristic of schistosomiasis lung pathology. Lungs of patients with schistosomiasis-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension have evidence of TGF-ß signaling in their remodeled pulmonary arteries. CONCLUSION: Experimental S mansoni-induced pulmonary vascular disease relies on canonical TGF-ß signaling.