Dissociating the Influence of Limb Posture and Visual Feedback Shifts on the Adaptation to Novel Movement Dynamics.

Accurate movements of the upper limb require the integration of various forms of sensory feedback (e.g., visual and postural information). The influence of these different sensory modalities on reaching movements has been largely studied by assessing endpoint errors after selectively perturbing sensory estimates of hand location. These studies have demonstrated that both vision and proprioception make key contributions in determining the reach endpoint. However, their influence on motor output throughout movement remains unclear. Here we used separate perturbations of posture and visual information to dissociate their effects on reaching dynamics and temporal force profiles during point-to-point reaching movements. We tested human subjects (N = 32) and found that vision and posture modulate select aspects of reaching dynamics. Specifically, altering arm posture influences the relationship between temporal force patterns and the motion-state variables of hand position and acceleration, whereas dissociating visual feedback influences the relationship between force patterns and the motion-state variables of velocity and acceleration. Next, we examined the extent these baseline motion-state relationships influence motor adaptation based on perturbations of movement dynamics. We trained subjects using a velocity-dependent force-field to probe the extent arm posture-dependent influences persisted after exposure to a motion-state dependent perturbation. Changes in the temporal force profiles due to variations in arm posture were not reduced by adaptation to novel movement dynamics, but persisted throughout learning. These results suggest that vision and posture differentially influence the internal estimation of limb state throughout movement and play distinct roles in forming the response to external perturbations during movement.

Learning leaves a memory trace in motor cortex.

How are we able to learn new behaviors without disrupting previously learned ones? To understand how the brain achieves this, we used a brain-computer interface (BCI) learning paradigm, which enables us to detect the presence of a memory of one behavior while performing another. We found that learning to use a new BCI map altered the neural activity that monkeys produced when they returned to using a familiar BCI map in a way that was specific to the learning experience. That is, learning left a "memory trace" in the primary motor cortex. This memory trace coexisted with proficient performance under the familiar map, primarily by altering neural activity in dimensions that did not impact behavior. Forming memory traces might be how the brain is able to provide for the joint learning of multiple behaviors without interference.

Motor cortex retains and reorients neural dynamics during motor imagery.

The most prominent characteristic of motor cortex is its activation during movement execution, but it is also active when we simply imagine movements in the absence of actual motor output. Despite decades of behavioural and imaging studies, it is unknown how the specific activity patterns and temporal dynamics in motor cortex during covert motor imagery relate to those during motor execution. Here we recorded intracortical activity from the motor cortex of two people who retain some residual wrist function following incomplete spinal cord injury as they performed both actual and imagined isometric wrist extensions. We found that we could decompose the population activity into three orthogonal subspaces, where one was similarly active during both action and imagery, and the others were active only during a single task type-action or imagery. Although they inhabited orthogonal neural dimensions, the action-unique and imagery-unique subspaces contained a strikingly similar set of dynamic features. Our results suggest that during motor imagery, motor cortex maintains the same overall population dynamics as during execution by reorienting the components related to motor output and/or feedback into a unique, output-null imagery subspace.

Dimensionality reduction of calcium-imaged neuronal population activity.

Calcium imaging has been widely adopted for its ability to record from large neuronal populations. To summarize the time course of neural activity, dimensionality reduction methods, which have been applied extensively to population spiking activity, may be particularly useful. However, it is unclear if the dimensionality reduction methods applied to spiking activity are appropriate for calcium imaging. We thus carried out a systematic study of design choices based on standard dimensionality reduction methods. We also developed a method to perform deconvolution and dimensionality reduction simultaneously (Calcium Imaging Linear Dynamical System, CILDS). CILDS most accurately recovered the single-trial, low-dimensional time courses from simulated calcium imaging data. CILDS also outperformed the other methods on calcium imaging recordings from larval zebrafish and mice. More broadly, this study represents a foundation for summarizing calcium imaging recordings of large neuronal populations using dimensionality reduction in diverse experimental settings.

A neural basis of choking under pressure.

Incentives tend to drive improvements in performance. But when incentives get too high, we can "choke under pressure" and underperform when it matters most. What neural processes might lead to choking under pressure? We studied Rhesus monkeys performing a challenging reaching task in which they underperform when an unusually large "jackpot" reward is at stake. We observed a collapse in neural information about upcoming movements for jackpot rewards: in the motor cortex, neural planning signals became less distinguishable for different reach directions when a jackpot reward was made available. We conclude that neural signals of reward and motor planning interact in the motor cortex in a manner that can explain why we choke under pressure. One-Sentence Summary: In response to exceptionally large reward cues, animals can "choke under pressure", and this corresponds to a collapse in the neural information about upcoming movements.

Motor cortex retains and reorients neural dynamics during motor imagery.

The most prominent role of motor cortex is generating patterns of neural activity that lead to movement, but it is also active when we simply imagine movements in the absence of actual motor output. Despite decades of behavioral and imaging studies, it is unknown how the specific activity patterns and temporal dynamics within motor cortex during covert motor imagery relate to those during motor execution. Here we recorded intracortical activity from the motor cortex of two people with residual wrist function following incomplete spinal cord injury as they performed both actual and imagined isometric wrist extensions. We found that we could decompose the population-level activity into orthogonal subspaces such that one set of components was similarly active during both action and imagery, and others were only active during a single task typeâ€"action or imagery. Although they inhabited orthogonal neural dimensions, the action-unique and imagery-unique subspaces contained a strikingly similar set of dynamical features. Our results suggest that during motor imagery, motor cortex maintains the same overall population dynamics as during execution by recreating the missing components related to motor output and/or feedback within a unique imagery-only subspace.

Visual experience has opposing influences on the quality of stimulus representation in adult primary visual cortex.

Transient dark exposure, typically 7-10 days in duration, followed by light reintroduction is an emerging treatment for improving the restoration of vision in amblyopic subjects whose occlusion is removed in adulthood. Dark exposure initiates homeostatic mechanisms that together with light-induced changes in cellular signaling pathways result in the re-engagement of juvenile-like plasticity in the adult such that previously deprived inputs can gain cortical territory. It is possible that dark exposure itself degrades visual responses, and this could place constraints on the optimal duration of dark exposure treatment. To determine whether eight days of dark exposure has a lasting negative impact on responses to classic grating stimuli, neural activity was recorded before and after dark exposure in awake head-fixed mice using two-photon calcium imaging. Neural discriminability, assessed using classifiers, was transiently reduced following dark exposure; a decrease in response reliability across a broad range of spatial frequencies likely contributed to the disruption. Both discriminability and reliability recovered. Fixed classifiers were used to demonstrate that stimulus representation rebounded to the original, pre-deprivation state, thus dark exposure did not appear to have a lasting negative impact on visual processing. Unexpectedly, we found that dark exposure significantly stabilized orientation preference and signal correlation. Our results reveal that natural vision exerts a disrupting influence on the stability of stimulus preference for classic grating stimuli and, at the same time, improves neural discriminability for both low and high-spatial frequency stimuli.

Existing function in primary visual cortex is not perturbed by new skill acquisition of a non-matched sensory task.

Acquisition of new skills has the potential to disturb existing network function. To directly assess whether previously acquired cortical function is altered during learning, mice were trained in an abstract task in which selected activity patterns were rewarded using an optical brain-computer interface device coupled to primary visual cortex (V1) neurons. Excitatory neurons were longitudinally recorded using 2-photon calcium imaging. Despite significant changes in local neural activity during task performance, tuning properties and stimulus encoding assessed outside of the trained context were not perturbed. Similarly, stimulus tuning was stable in neurons that remained responsive following a different, visual discrimination training task. However, visual discrimination training increased the rate of representational drift. Our results indicate that while some forms of perceptual learning may modify the contribution of individual neurons to stimulus encoding, new skill learning is not inherently disruptive to the quality of stimulus representation in adult V1.

How learning unfolds in the brain: toward an optimization view.

How do changes in the brain lead to learning? To answer this question, consider an artificial neural network (ANN), where learning proceeds by optimizing a given objective or cost function. This "optimization framework" may provide new insights into how the brain learns, as many idiosyncratic features of neural activity can be recapitulated by an ANN trained to perform the same task. Nevertheless, there are key features of how neural population activity changes throughout learning that cannot be readily explained in terms of optimization and are not typically features of ANNs. Here we detail three of these features: (1) the inflexibility of neural variability throughout learning, (2) the use of multiple learning processes even during simple tasks, and (3) the presence of large task-nonspecific activity changes. We propose that understanding the role of these features in the brain will be key to describing biological learning using an optimization framework.

Monkeys exhibit a paradoxical decrease in performance in high-stakes scenarios.

In high-stakes situations, people sometimes exhibit a frustrating phenomenon known as "choking under pressure." Usually, we perform better when the potential payoff is larger. However, once potential rewards get too high, performance paradoxically decreases-we "choke." Why do we choke under pressure? An animal model of choking would facilitate the investigation of its neural basis. However, it could be that choking is a uniquely human occurrence. To determine whether animals also choke, we trained three rhesus monkeys to perform a difficult reaching task in which they knew in advance the amount of reward to be given upon successful completion. Like humans, monkeys performed worse when potential rewards were exceptionally valuable. Failures that occurred at the highest level of reward were due to overly cautious reaching, in line with the psychological theory that explicit monitoring of behavior leads to choking. Our results demonstrate that choking under pressure is not unique to humans, and thus, its neural basis might be conserved across species.

Distinct Kinematic Adjustments over Multiple Timescales Accompany Locomotor Skill Development in Mice.

Robust locomotion is critical to many species' survival, yet the mechanisms by which efficient locomotion is learned and maintained are poorly understood. In mice, a common paradigm for assaying locomotor learning is the rotarod task, in which mice learn to maintain balance atop of an accelerating rod. However, the standard metric for learning in this task is improvements in latency to fall, which gives little insight into the rich kinematic adjustments that accompany locomotor learning. In this study, we developed a rotarod-like task called the RotaWheel in which changes in paw kinematics are tracked using high-speed cameras as mice learn to stay atop an accelerating wheel. Using this device, we found that learning was accompanied by stereotyped progressions of paw kinematics that correlated with early, intermediate, and late stages of performance. Within the first day, mice sharpened their interlimb coordination using a timed pause in the forward swing of their forepaws. Over the next several days, mice reduced their stride length and took shorter, quicker steps. By the second week of training, mice began to use a more variable locomotor strategy, where consecutive overshoots or undershoots in strides were selected across paws to drive forward and backward exploration of the wheel. Collectively, our results suggest that mouse locomotor learning occurs through multiple mechanisms evolving over separate time courses and involving distinct corrective actions. These data provide insights into the kinematic strategies that accompany locomotor learning and establish an experimental platform for studying locomotor skill learning in mice.

Impact of Pharmacologically Left Shifting the Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve on Arterial Blood Gases and Pulmonary Gas Exchange During Maximal Exercise in Hypoxia.

Stewart, Glenn M., Troy J. Cross, Michael J. Joyner, Steven C. Chase, Timothy Curry, Josh Lehrer-Graiwer, Kobina Dufu, Nicholas E. Vlahakis, and Bruce D. Johnson. Impact of pharmacologically left shifting the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve on arterial blood gases and pulmonary gas exchange during maximal exercise in hypoxia. High Alt Med Biol. 22:249-262, 2021. Introduction: Physiological and pathological conditions, which reduce the loading of oxygen onto hemoglobin (Hb), can impair exercise capacity and cause debilitating symptoms. Accordingly, this study examined the impact of pharmacologically left shifting the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve (ODC) on arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) and exercise capacity. Methods: Eight healthy subjects completed a maximal incremental exercise test in hypoxia (FIO2: 0.125) and normoxia (FIO2: 0.21) before (Day 1) and after (Day 15) daily ingestion of 900 mg of voxelotor (an oxygen/Hb affinity modulator). Pulmonary gas exchange and arterial blood gases were assessed throughout exercise and at peak. Data for a 1,500 mg daily drug dose are reported in a limited cohort (n = 3). Results: Fourteen days of drug administration left shifted the ODC (p50 measured under standard conditions, Day 1: 28.0 ± 2.1 mmHg vs. Day 15: 26.1 ± 1.8 mmHg, p < 0.05). Throughout incremental exercise in hypoxia, SaO2 was systematically higher after drug (peak exercise SaO2 on Day 1: 71 ± 2 vs. Day 15: 81% ± 2%, p < 0.001), whereas oxygen extraction (Ca-vO2 diff) and consumption (VO2) were similar (peak exercise Ca-vO2 diff on Day 1: 11.5 ± 1.7 vs. Day 15: 11.0 ± 1.8 ml/100 ml blood, p = 0.417; peak VO2 on Day 1: 2.59 ± 0.39 vs. Day 15: 2.47 ± 0.43 l/min, p = 0.127). Throughout incremental exercise in normoxia, SaO2 was systematically higher after drug, whereas peak VO2 was reduced (peak exercise SaO2 on Day 1: 93.9 ± 1.8 vs. Day 15: 95.8% ± 1.0%, p = 0.008; peak VO2 on Day 1: 3.62 ± 0.55 vs. Day 15: 3.26 ± 52 l/min, p = 0.001). Conclusion: Pharmacologically increasing the affinity of Hb for oxygen improved SaO2 during hypoxia without impacting exercise capacity; however, left shifting the ODC in healthy individuals appears detrimental to exercise capacity in normoxia. Left shifting the ODC to different magnitudes and under more chronic forms of hypoxia warrants further study.

Learning is shaped by abrupt changes in neural engagement.

Internal states such as arousal, attention and motivation modulate brain-wide neural activity, but how these processes interact with learning is not well understood. During learning, the brain modifies its neural activity to improve behavior. How do internal states affect this process? Using a brain-computer interface learning paradigm in monkeys, we identified large, abrupt fluctuations in neural population activity in motor cortex indicative of arousal-like internal state changes, which we term 'neural engagement.' In a brain-computer interface, the causal relationship between neural activity and behavior is known, allowing us to understand how neural engagement impacted behavioral performance for different task goals. We observed stereotyped changes in neural engagement that occurred regardless of how they impacted performance. This allowed us to predict how quickly different task goals were learned. These results suggest that changes in internal states, even those seemingly unrelated to goal-seeking behavior, can systematically influence how behavior improves with learning.

Development of Natural Scene Representation in Primary Visual Cortex Requires Early Postnatal Experience.

The development of the visual system is known to be shaped by early-life experience. To identify response properties that contribute to enhanced natural scene representation, we performed calcium imaging of excitatory neurons in the primary visual cortex (V1) of awake mice raised in three different conditions (standard-reared, dark-reared, and delayed-visual experience) and compared neuronal responses to natural scene features in relation to simpler grating stimuli that varied in orientation and spatial frequency. We assessed population selectivity in the V1 by using decoding methods and found that natural scene discriminability increased by 75% between the ages of 4 and 6 weeks. Both natural scene and grating discriminability were higher in standard-reared animals than in those raised in the dark. This increase in discriminability was accompanied by a reduction in the number of neurons that responded to low-spatial-frequency gratings. At the same time, there was an increase in neuronal preference for natural scenes. Light exposure restricted to a 2- to 4-week window during adulthood did not induce improvements in natural scene or in grating stimulus discriminability. Our results demonstrate that experience reduces the number of neurons needed to effectively encode grating stimuli and that early visual experience enhances natural scene discriminability by directly increasing responsiveness to natural scene features.

Effects of an allosteric hemoglobin affinity modulator on arterial blood gases and cardiopulmonary responses during normoxic and hypoxic low-intensity exercise.

Numerous pathophysiological conditions induce hypoxemia-related cardiopulmonary perturbations, decrements in exercise capacity, and debilitating symptoms. Accordingly, this study investigated the efficacy of an allosteric hemoglobin modulator (voxelotor) to enhance arterial oxygen saturation during low-intensity exercise in hypoxia. Eight normal healthy subjects (36 ± 7 yr; 73.8 ± 9.5 kg; 3 women) completed a submaximal cycling test (60 W) under normoxic ([Formula: see text]: 0.21; O2 partial pressure: 144 mmHg) and hypoxic ([Formula: see text]: 0.125; O2 partial pressure: 82 mmHg) conditions before (day 1) and after (day 15) 14 days of oral drug administration. While stationary on a cycle ergometer and during exercise, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and dyspnea, oxygen consumption (V̇o2), and cardiac output (Q) were measured noninvasively, while arterial blood pressure (MAP) and blood gases ([Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], and [Formula: see text]) were measured invasively. The 14-day drug administration left shifted the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve (ODC; p50 measured at standard pH and Pco2; day 1: 28.0 ± 2.1 mmHg vs. day 15: 26.1 ± 1.8 mmHg, P < 0.05). RPE, dyspnea, V̇o2, Q, and MAP were not different between day 1 and day 15. [Formula: see text] was similar during normoxia on day 1 and day 15 while stationary but higher during exercise (day 1: 95.2 ± 0.4% vs. day 15: 96.6 ± 0.3%, P < 0.05). [Formula: see text] was higher during hypoxia on day 15 while stationary (day 1: 82.9 ± 3.4% vs. day 15: 90.9 ± 1.8%, P < 0.05) and during exercise (day 1: 73.6 ± 2.5% vs. day 15: 84.8 ± 2.7%, P < 0.01). [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text]were systematically higher and lower, respectively, after drug (P < 0.01), while the alveolar-arterial oxygen difference was unchanged suggesting hyperventilation contributed to the rise in [Formula: see text]. Oral administration of voxelotor left shifted the ODC and stimulated a mild hyperventilation, leading to improved arterial oxygen saturation without altering V̇o2 and central hemodynamics during rest and low-intensity exercise. This effect was more pronounced during submaximal hypoxic exercise, when arterial desaturation was more evident. Additional studies are needed to determine the effects of voxelotor during maximal exercise and under chronic forms of hypoxia.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In humans, a novel allosteric hemoglobin-oxygen affinity modulator was administered to comprehensively examine the cardiopulmonary consequences of stabilizing a portion of the available hemoglobin in a high-oxygen affinity state during submaximal exercise in normoxia and hypoxia. Oral administration of voxelotor enhanced arterial oxygen saturation during submaximal exercise without altering oxygen consumption and central hemodynamics; however, the partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide was reduced and the partial pressure of arterial oxygen was increased implying that hyperventilation also contributed to the increase in oxygen saturation. The preservation of arterial oxygen saturation and content was particularly evident during hypoxic submaximal exercise, when arterial desaturation typically occurs, but this did not influence arterial-venous oxygen difference.

Stabilization of a brain-computer interface via the alignment of low-dimensional spaces of neural activity.

The instability of neural recordings can render clinical brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) uncontrollable. Here, we show that the alignment of low-dimensional neural manifolds (low-dimensional spaces that describe specific correlation patterns between neurons) can be used to stabilize neural activity, thereby maintaining BCI performance in the presence of recording instabilities. We evaluated the stabilizer with non-human primates during online cursor control via intracortical BCIs in the presence of severe and abrupt recording instabilities. The stabilized BCIs recovered proficient control under different instability conditions and across multiple days. The stabilizer does not require knowledge of user intent and can outperform supervised recalibration. It stabilized BCIs even when neural activity contained little information about the direction of cursor movement. The stabilizer may be applicable to other neural interfaces and may improve the clinical viability of BCIs.

New neural activity patterns emerge with long-term learning.

Learning has been associated with changes in the brain at every level of organization. However, it remains difficult to establish a causal link between specific changes in the brain and new behavioral abilities. We establish that new neural activity patterns emerge with learning. We demonstrate that these new neural activity patterns cause the new behavior. Thus, the formation of new patterns of neural population activity can underlie the learning of new skills.

Distinct types of neural reorganization during long-term learning.

What are the neural mechanisms of skill acquisition? Many studies find that long-term practice is associated with a functional reorganization of cortical neural activity. However, the link between these changes in neural activity and the behavioral improvements that occur is not well understood, especially for long-term learning that takes place over several weeks. To probe this link in detail, we leveraged a brain-computer interface (BCI) paradigm in which rhesus monkeys learned to master nonintuitive mappings between neural spiking in primary motor cortex and computer cursor movement. Critically, these BCI mappings were designed to disambiguate several different possible types of neural reorganization. We found that during the initial phase of learning, lasting minutes to hours, rapid changes in neural activity common to all neurons led to a fast suppression of motor error. In parallel, local changes to individual neurons gradually accrued over several weeks of training. This slower timescale cortical reorganization persisted long after the movement errors had decreased to asymptote and was associated with more efficient control of movement. We conclude that long-term practice evokes two distinct neural reorganization processes with vastly different timescales, leading to different aspects of improvement in motor behavior. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We leveraged a brain-computer interface learning paradigm to track the neural reorganization occurring throughout the full time course of motor skill learning lasting several weeks. We report on two distinct types of neural reorganization that mirror distinct phases of behavioral improvement: a fast phase, in which global reorganization of neural recruitment leads to a quick suppression of motor error, and a slow phase, in which local changes in individual tuning lead to improvements in movement efficiency.

Feature selectivity is stable in primary visual cortex across a range of spatial frequencies.

Reliable perception of environmental signals is a critical first step to generating appropriate responses and actions in awake behaving animals. The extent to which stimulus features are stably represented at the level of individual neurons is not well understood. To address this issue, we investigated the persistence of stimulus response tuning over the course of 1-2 weeks in the primary visual cortex of awake, adult mice. Using 2-photon calcium imaging, we directly compared tuning stability to two stimulus features (orientation and spatial frequency) within the same neurons, specifically in layer 2/3 excitatory neurons. The majority of neurons that were tracked and tuned on consecutive imaging sessions maintained stable orientation and spatial frequency preferences (83% and 76% of the population, respectively) over a 2-week period. Selectivity, measured as orientation and spatial frequency bandwidth, was also stable. Taking into account all 4 parameters, we found that the proportion of stable neurons was less than two thirds (57%). Thus, a substantial fraction of neurons (43%) were unstable in at least one parameter. Furthermore, we found that instability of orientation preference was not predictive of instability of spatial frequency preference within the same neurons. Population analysis revealed that noise correlation values were stable well beyond the estimated decline in monosynaptic connectivity (~250-300 microns). Our results demonstrate that orientation preference is stable across a range of spatial frequencies and that the tuning of distinct stimulus features can be independently maintained within a single neuron.

Constraints on neural redundancy.

Millions of neurons drive the activity of hundreds of muscles, meaning many different neural population activity patterns could generate the same movement. Studies have suggested that these redundant (i.e. behaviorally equivalent) activity patterns may be beneficial for neural computation. However, it is unknown what constraints may limit the selection of different redundant activity patterns. We leveraged a brain-computer interface, allowing us to define precisely which neural activity patterns were redundant. Rhesus monkeys made cursor movements by modulating neural activity in primary motor cortex. We attempted to predict the observed distribution of redundant neural activity. Principles inspired by work on muscular redundancy did not accurately predict these distributions. Surprisingly, the distributions of redundant neural activity and task-relevant activity were coupled, which enabled accurate predictions of the distributions of redundant activity. This suggests limits on the extent to which redundancy may be exploited by the brain for computation.