Osr2 functions as a biomechanical checkpoint to aggravate CD8+ T cell exhaustion in tumor.

Alterations in extracellular matrix (ECM) architecture and stiffness represent hallmarks of cancer. Whether the biomechanical property of ECM impacts the functionality of tumor-reactive CD8+ T cells remains largely unknown. Here, we reveal that the transcription factor (TF) Osr2 integrates biomechanical signaling and facilitates the terminal exhaustion of tumor-reactive CD8+ T cells. Osr2 expression is selectively induced in the terminally exhausted tumor-specific CD8+ T cell subset by coupled T cell receptor (TCR) signaling and biomechanical stress mediated by the Piezo1/calcium/CREB axis. Consistently, depletion of Osr2 alleviates the exhaustion of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells or CAR-T cells, whereas forced Osr2 expression aggravates their exhaustion in solid tumor models. Mechanistically, Osr2 recruits HDAC3 to rewire the epigenetic program for suppressing cytotoxic gene expression and promoting CD8+ T cell exhaustion. Thus, our results unravel Osr2 functions as a biomechanical checkpoint to exacerbate CD8+ T cell exhaustion and could be targeted to potentiate cancer immunotherapy.

Classification of Alzheimer's disease: application of a transfer learning deep Q-network method.

Early diagnosis is crucial to slowing the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), so it is urgent to find an effective diagnostic method for AD. This study intended to investigate whether the transfer learning approach of deep Q-network (DQN) could effectively distinguish AD patients using local metrics of resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) as features. This study included 1310 subjects from the Consortium for Reliability and Reproducibility (CoRR) and 50 subjects from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) GO/2. The amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF), fractional ALFF (fALFF) and percent amplitude of fluctuation (PerAF) were extracted as features using the Power 264 atlas. Based on gender bias in AD, we searched for transferable similar parts between the CoRR feature matrix and the ADNI feature matrix, resulting in the CoRR similar feature matrix served as the source domain and the ADNI similar feature matrix served as the target domain. A DQN classifier was pre-trained in the source domain and transferred to the target domain. Finally, the transferred DQN classifier was used to classify AD and healthy controls (HC). A permutation test was performed. The DQN transfer learning achieved a classification accuracy of 86.66% (p < 0.01), recall of 83.33% and precision of 83.33%. The findings suggested that the transfer learning approach using DQN could be an effective way to distinguish AD from HC. It also revealed the potential value of local brain activity in AD clinical diagnosis.

SPTAN1/NUMB axis senses cell density to restrain cell growth and oncogenesis through Hippo signaling.

The loss of contact inhibition is a key step during carcinogenesis. The Hippo-Yes-associated protein (Hippo/YAP) pathway is an important regulator of cell growth in a cell density-dependent manner. However, how Hippo signaling senses cell density in this context remains elusive. Here, we report that high cell density induced the phosphorylation of spectrin α chain, nonerythrocytic 1 (SPTAN1), a plasma membrane-stabilizing protein, to recruit NUMB endocytic adaptor protein isoforms 1 and 2 (NUMB1/2), which further sequestered microtubule affinity-regulating kinases (MARKs) in the plasma membrane and rendered them inaccessible for phosphorylation and inhibition of the Hippo kinases sterile 20-like kinases MST1 and MST2 (MST1/2). WW45 interaction with MST1/2 was thereby enhanced, resulting in the activation of Hippo signaling to block YAP activity for cell contact inhibition. Importantly, low cell density led to SPTAN1 dephosphorylation and NUMB cytoplasmic location, along with MST1/2 inhibition and, consequently, YAP activation. Moreover, double KO of NUMB and WW45 in the liver led to appreciable organ enlargement and rapid tumorigenesis. Interestingly, NUMB isoforms 3 and 4, which have a truncated phosphotyrosine-binding (PTB) domain and are thus unable to interact with phosphorylated SPTAN1 and activate MST1/2, were selectively upregulated in liver cancer, which correlated with YAP activation. We have thus revealed a SPTAN1/NUMB1/2 axis that acts as a cell density sensor to restrain cell growth and oncogenesis by coupling external cell-cell contact signals to intracellular Hippo signaling.

Bifunctional monomer oligomers-based composite molecularly imprinted membranes for the electrochemical monitoring of Sudan I.

Herein, we developed a highly sensitive electrochemical sensor for the trace detection of Sudan I (SDI) dye based on composite molecularly imprinted membranes (MIMs). The pentenyl (lipoic acyl)-isoleucyl-chitosan oligosaccharide (P(L)ICO) and pentenyl-asparaginyl-chitosan oligosaccharide (PASCO) served as bifunctional monomer oligomers. After deposition of gold nanoparticles on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) surface, a P(L)ICO layer successfully self-assembled on the surface. Subsequently, the primary MIM was polymerised on the electrode surface by using SDI as a template, PASCO as a functional monomer oligomer, and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as a cross-linking agent. Electrochemical polymerisation was then conducted in an N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide solution. After eluting the SDI molecules from the composite MIMs, the fabricated SDI-MIM(PM)/Fn-Au/GCE demonstrated specific adsorption of SDI. Under optimal conditions, the constructed sensor exhibited a linear relationship between decreasing peak current and SDI concentration from 0.02 to 3.5 µM with a low detection limit of 4 nM (S/N = 3). As a proof of concept, SDI-MIM(PM)/Fn-Au/GCE was also applied to detect SDI in chili powder samples, with recoveries ranging from 96.8 to 106.6%.

A new ALK inhibitor overcomes resistance to first- and second-generation inhibitors in NSCLC.

More than 60% of nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients show a positive response to the first ALK inhibitor, crizotinib, which has been used as the standard treatment for newly diagnosed patients with ALK rearrangement. However, most patients inevitably develop crizotinib resistance due to acquired secondary mutations in the ALK kinase domain, such as the gatekeeper mutation L1196M and the most refractory mutation, G1202R. Here, we develop XMU-MP-5 as a new-generation ALK inhibitor to overcome crizotinib resistance mutations, including L1196M and G1202R. XMU-MP-5 blocks ALK signaling pathways and inhibits the proliferation of cells harboring either wild-type or mutant EML4-ALK in vitro and suppresses tumor growth in xenograft mouse models in vivo. Structural analysis provides insights into the mode of action of XMU-MP-5. In addition, XMU-MP-5 induces significant regression of lung tumors in two genetically engineered mouse (GEM) models, further demonstrating its pharmacological efficacy and potential for clinical application. These preclinical data support XMU-MP-5 as a novel selective ALK inhibitor with high potency and selectivity. XMU-MP-5 holds great promise as a new therapeutic against clinically relevant secondary ALK mutations.

Glycogen accumulation and phase separation drives liver tumor initiation.

Glucose consumption is generally increased in tumor cells to support tumor growth. Interestingly, we report that glycogen accumulation is a key initiating oncogenic event during liver malignant transformation. We found that glucose-6-phosphatase (G6PC) catalyzing the last step of glycogenolysis is frequently downregulated to augment glucose storage in pre-malignant cells. Accumulated glycogen undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation, which results in the assembly of the Laforin-Mst1/2 complex and consequently sequesters Hippo kinases Mst1/2 in glycogen liquid droplets to relieve their inhibition on Yap. Moreover, G6PC or another glycogenolysis enzyme-liver glycogen phosphorylase (PYGL) deficiency in both human and mice results in glycogen storage disease along with liver enlargement and tumorigenesis in a Yap-dependent manner. Consistently, elimination of glycogen accumulation abrogates liver growth and cancer incidence, whereas increasing glycogen storage accelerates tumorigenesis. Thus, we concluded that cancer-initiating cells adapt a glycogen storing mode, which blocks Hippo signaling through glycogen phase separation to augment tumor incidence.

TLR4 signalling via Piezo1 engages and enhances the macrophage mediated host response during bacterial infection.

TLR4 signaling plays key roles in the innate immune response to microbial infection. Innate immune cells encounter different mechanical cues in both health and disease to adapt their behaviors. However, the impact of mechanical sensing signals on TLR4 signal-mediated innate immune response remains unclear. Here we show that TLR4 signalling augments macrophage bactericidal activity through the mechanical sensor Piezo1. Bacterial infection or LPS stimulation triggers assembly of the complex of Piezo1 and TLR4 to remodel F-actin organization and augment phagocytosis, mitochondrion-phagosomal ROS production and bacterial clearance and genetic deficiency of Piezo1 results in abrogation of these responses. Mechanistically, LPS stimulates TLR4 to induce Piezo1-mediated calcium influx and consequently activates CaMKII-Mst1/2-Rac axis for pathogen ingestion and killing. Inhibition of CaMKII or knockout of either Mst1/2 or Rac1 results in reduced macrophage bactericidal activity, phenocopying the Piezo1 deficiency. Thus, we conclude that TLR4 drives the innate immune response via Piezo1 providing critical insight for understanding macrophage mechanophysiology and the host response.

[Effect of different melatonin treatment regimens on white matter damage in neonatal rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage].

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of different melatonin treatment regimens on long-term behavior and white matter damage in neonatal rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD), and to seek an optimal melatonin treatment regimen. METHODS: Healthy Sprague-Dawley rats, aged 7 days, were randomly divided into four groups: sham-operation, HIBD, single-dose immediate treatment (SDIT), and 7-day continuous treatment (7DCT), with 8 rats in each group. A neonatal rat model of HIBD was prepared according to the classical Rice-Vannucci method. On day 21 after HIBD, the Morris water maze test was used to evaluate spatial learning and memory abilities. On day 70 after HIBD, immunofluorescence assay was used to measure the expression of neuronal nuclear antigen (NeuN) in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampal CA1 region of neonatal rats, and double-label immunofluorescence was used to measure the expression of myelin basic protein (MBP) and neurofilament 200 (NF200) in the corpus striatum and the corpus callosum. RESULTS: The results of the Morris water maze test showed that the SDIT and 7DCT groups had a significantly shorter mean escape latency than the HIBD group, and the 7DCT group had a significantly shorter mean escape latency than the SDIT group (P < 0.05). The results of immunofluorescence assay for NeuN showed that the SDIT and 7DCT groups had a significantly higher number of NeuN+ cells in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampal CA1 region than the HIBD group, and the 7DCT group had a significantly higher number than the SDIT group (P < 0.05). MBP/NF200 double-label immunofluorescence showed that compared with the HIBD group, the SDIT group and the 7DCT group had significantly higher fluorescence intensities of MBP and NF200 in the corpus striatum, and the 7DCT group had significantly higher fluorescence intensities than the SDIT group (P < 0.05); the 7DCT group had significantly higher fluorescence intensities of MBP and NF200 in the corpus callosum than the SDIT and HIBD groups (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Both SDIT and 7DCT can improve long-term behavior and reduce white matter damage in neonatal rats with HIBD, and 7DCT is more effective than SDIT.

Proto-oncogene Src links lipogenesis via lipin-1 to breast cancer malignancy.

Increased lipogenesis has been linked to an increased cancer risk and poor prognosis; however, the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. Here we show that phosphatidic acid phosphatase (PAP) lipin-1, which generates diglyceride precursors necessary for the synthesis of glycerolipids, interacts with and is a direct substrate of the Src proto-oncogenic tyrosine kinase. Obesity-associated microenvironmental factors and other Src-activating growth factors, including the epidermal growth factor, activate Src and promote Src-mediated lipin-1 phosphorylation on Tyr398, Tyr413 and Tyr795 residues. The tyrosine phosphorylation of lipin-1 markedly increases its PAP activity, accelerating the synthesis of glycerophospholipids and triglyceride. Alteration of the three tyrosine residues to phenylalanine (3YF-lipin-1) disables lipin-1 from mediating Src-enhanced glycerolipid synthesis, cell proliferation and xenograft growth. Re-expression of 3YF-lipin-1 in PyVT;Lpin1-/- mice fails to promote progression and metastasis of mammary tumours. Human breast tumours exhibit increased p-Tyr-lipin-1 levels compared to the adjacent tissues. Importantly, statistical analyses show that levels of p-Tyr-lipin-1 correlate with tumour sizes, lymph node metastasis, time to recurrence and survival of the patients. These results illustrate a direct lipogenesis-promoting role of the pro-oncogenic Src, providing a mechanistic link between obesity-associated mitogenic signaling and breast cancer malignancy.

Pharmacological Targeting of Vacuolar H+-ATPase via Subunit V1G Combats Multidrug-Resistant Cancer.

Multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer remains a major challenge for the success of chemotherapy. Natural products have been a rich source for the discovery of drugs against MDR cancers. Here, we applied high-throughput cytotoxicity screening of an in-house natural product library against MDR SGC7901/VCR cells and identified that the cyclodepsipeptide verucopeptin demonstrated notable antitumor potency. Cytological profiling combined with click chemistry-based proteomics revealed that ATP6V1G directly interacted with verucopeptin. ATP6V1G, a subunit of the vacuolar H+-ATPase (v-ATPase) that has not been previously targeted, was essential for SGC7901/VCR cell growth. Verucopeptin exhibited strong inhibition of both v-ATPase activity and mTORC1 signaling, leading to substantial pharmacological efficacy against SGC7901/VCR cell proliferation and tumor growth in vivo. Our results demonstrate that targeting v-ATPase via its V1G subunit constitutes a unique approach for modulating v-ATPase and mTORC1 signaling with great potential for the development of therapeutics against MDR cancers.

A trustworthy CpG nanoplatform for highly safe and efficient cancer photothermal combined immunotherapy.

Palladium nanosheets (Pd NSs) have recently attracted increasing research interest in the biomedical field due to their excellent near-infrared absorption, photothermal conversion capability and biocompatibility. However, the application of Pd NSs in immunotherapy has not been reported. Here, Pd NSs were used as the carriers of immunoadjuvant CpG ODNs for not only efficient delivery of CpG but also for enhancing the immunotherapeutic effects of CpG by the Pd NS-based photothermal therapy (PTT). Pd NSs had no influence on the immune system, and the prepared Pd-CpG nanocomposites, especially Pd(5)-CpG(PS), could significantly increase the uptake of CpG by immune cells and enhance the immunostimulatory activity of CpG in vitro and in vivo. With the combination of Pd(5)-CpG(PS) mediated PTT and immunotherapy, highly efficient tumor inhibition was achieved and the survival rate of the tumor-bearing mice was greatly increased depending on Pd(5)-CpG(PS) with safe near-infrared (NIR) irradiation (808 nm laser, 0.15 W cm-2). Importantly, the combination therapy induced tumor cell death and released tumor-associated antigens, which could be effectively taken up and presented by antigen presenting cells with the assistance of CpG, leading to increased TNF-α and IL-6 production and enhanced cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity. This work provides a new paradigm of utilizing photothermal nanomaterials for safe and highly efficient cancer photothermal combined immunotherapy.

Non-canonical Hippo signaling regulates immune responses.

The Hippo signaling pathway has been shown to play a pivotal role in controlling organ size and maintaining tissue homeostasis in multiple organisms ranging from Drosophila to mammals. Recently, we and others have demonstrated that Hippo signaling is also essential for maintaining the immune system homeostasis. Unlike the canonical Mst-Lats-Yap signal pathway, which controls tissue growth during development and regeneration, most studies regarding Hippo signaling in immune regulation is focusing in Mst1/2, the core kinases of Hippo signaling, cross-talking with other signaling pathways in various immune cells. In particular, patients bearing a loss-of-function mutation of Mst1 develop a complex immunodeficiency syndrome. Regarding the Hippo signaling in innate immunity, we have reported that Mst1/2 kinases are required for phagocytosis and efficient clearance of bacteria in phagocytes by regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production; and at the same time, by sensing the excessive ROS, Mst1/2 kinases maintain cellular redox homeostasis and prevent phagocytes aging and death through modulating the stability of the key antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2. In addition, we have revealed that the Mst1/2 kinases are critical in regulating T cells activation and Mst1/2-TAZ axis regulates the reciprocal differentiation of Treg cells and Th17 cells to modulate autoimmune inflammation by altering interactions between the transcription factors Foxp3 and RORγt. These results indicate that Hippo signaling maintains the balance between tolerance and inflammation of adaptive immunity.

[Effects of different melatonin treatment regimens on the proliferation of endogenous neural stem cells in neonatal rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage].

OBJECTIVE: To study the effects of different melatonin treatment regimens on the proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs) and long-term histopathology in neonatal rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD), and to identify better melatonin treatment regimens. METHODS: A total of 96 Sprague-Dawley rats aged 7 days were randomly divided into normal control, HIBD, single-dose immediate melatonin treatment (SDIT), and 7-day continuous melatonin treatment (7DCT) groups, with 24 rats in each group. The rat model of HIBD was prepared by isolation and electrocoagulation of the right common carotid artery as well as hypoxic treatment in a hypoxic chamber (oxygen concentration 8.00% ±â€…0.01%) for 2 hours. On day 7 after modeling, proliferating cell nuclear antigen/Nestin double-labeling immunofluorescence was used to measure the proliferation of endogenous NSCs in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) region in 8 rats in each group, and Western blot was used to measure the protein expression of Nestin in brain. On day 28 after modeling, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and Nissl staining were used to observe the changes in the histopathology and the number of pyramidal cells in the hippocampal CA1 region in 8 rats in each group. RESULTS: Immunofluorescent staining showed that compared with the HIBD group, the SDIT and 7DCT groups had a significant increase in the number of PCNA+Nestin+DAPI+ cells, and the 7DCT group had a significantly higher number than the SDIT group (P<0.01). Western blot showed that the SDIT and 7DCT groups had significantly higher protein expression of Nestin than the HIBD group, and the 7DCT group had significantly higher expression than the SDIT group (P<0.05). HE staining showed that the SDIT and 7DCT groups had alleviated cell injury, and Nissl staining showed that compared with the HIBD group, the SDIT and 7DCT groups had a significant increase in the number of pyramidal cells, and the 7DCT group had a significantly higher number than the SDIT group (P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Both single-dose immediate melatonin treatment and 7-day continuous melatonin treatment can promote the proliferation of endogenous NSCs and alleviate long-term histological injury in the brain of neonatal rats with HIBD. A 7-day continuous melatonin treatment has a better effect than single-dose immediate melatonin treatment.

Melatonin attenuates white matter damage after focal brain ischemia in rats by regulating the TLR4/NF-κB pathway.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the possible neuroprotective effects of melatonin against brain white matter damage via the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/ nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway in focal cerebral ischemic rats. METHODS: Fifty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into the Sham, middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), and melatonin groups. The successful MCAO models were evaluated by Laser Doppler flowmetry, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with T2-weighted imaging (T2WI) examination and 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. White matter damage was assessed by myelin basic protein (MBP) immunohistochemical, Luxol Fast Blue (LFB) staining, and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) examination. The proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) was examined by proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)/neural glial antigen 2 (NG2)/DAPI immunofluorescent staining. And the effects of melatonin therapy on the TLR4, NF-κB, and interleukin (IL)-1ß proteins were examined by immunohistochemical staining. The correlation between the proliferating OPCs and TLR4 protein, IL-1ß and TLR4 protein was respectively analyzed by linear regression analysis. RESULTS: The infarct volume was significantly reduced and white matter damage was also significantly alleviated in the melatonin group as compared with the MCAO group (P <  0.05), and there were more TLR4+, NF-κB+ and IL-1ß+ cells in the MCAO group compared with the melatonin group (P <  0.01). Similarly, more PCNA+NG2+ cells were observed in the subventricular zone and white matter areas in the melatonin group compared with the MCAO group (P <  0.01). The number of TLR4+ cells was closely positively correlated with that of IL-1ß+ cells, and negatively correlated with that of PCNA+NG2+ cells. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, melatonin could promote the proliferation of endogenous OPCs and suppress the expression of IL-1ß protein via inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB signaling, thus alleviate the white matter damage in focal cerebral ischemic rats.

FGF15 Activates Hippo Signaling to Suppress Bile Acid Metabolism and Liver Tumorigenesis.

The external factors that modulate Hippo signaling remain elusive. Here, we report that FGF15 activates Hippo signaling to suppress bile acid metabolism, liver overgrowth, and tumorigenesis. FGF15 is induced by FXR in ileal enterocytes in response to increased amounts of intestinal bile. We found that circulating enterohepatic FGF15 stimulates hepatic receptor FGFR4 to recruit and phosphorylate NF2, which relieves the inhibitory effect of Raf on the Hippo kinases Mst1/2, thereby switching FGFR4's role from pro-oncogenic to anti-tumor signaling. The activated Mst1/2 subsequently phosphorylates and stabilizes SHP to downregulate the key bile acid-synthesis enzyme Cyp7a1 expression, thereby limiting bile acid synthesis. In contrast, Mst1/2 deficiency impairs bile acid metabolism and remarkably increases Cyp7a1 expression and bile acid production. Importantly, pharmacological depletion of intestinal bile abrogates Mst1/2-mutant-driven liver overgrowth and oncogenesis. Therefore, FGF15-Hippo signaling along the gut-liver axis acts as a sensor of bile acid availability to restrain liver size and tumorigenesis.

Macrophage achieves self-protection against oxidative stress-induced ageing through the Mst-Nrf2 axis.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in phagocytes is a major defense mechanism against pathogens. However, the cellular self-protective mechanism against such potential damage from oxidative stress remains unclear. Here we show that the kinases Mst1 and Mst2 (Mst1/2) sense ROS and maintain cellular redox balance by modulating the stability of antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2. Site-specific ROS release recruits Mst1/2 from the cytosol to the phagosomal or mitochondrial membrane, with ROS subsequently activating Mst1/2 to phosphorylate kelch like ECH associated protein 1 (Keap1) and prevent Keap1 polymerization, thereby blocking Nrf2 ubiquitination and degradation to protect cells against oxidative damage. Treatment with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine disrupts ROS-induced interaction of Mst1/2 with phagosomes or mitochondria, and thereby diminishes the Mst-Nrf2 signal. Consistently, loss of Mst1/2 results in increased oxidative injury, phagocyte ageing and death. Thus, our results identify the Mst-Nrf2 axis as an important ROS-sensing and antioxidant mechanism during an antimicrobial response.

The Hippo Signaling Pathway in Regenerative Medicine.

The major role of Hippo signaling is to inhibit their downstream effectors YAP/TAZ for organ size control during development and regeneration (Nat Rev Drug Discov 13(1):63-79, 2014; Dev Cell 19(4):491-505, 2010; Cell 163(4):811-828, 2015). We and others have demonstrated that the genetic disruption of kinases Mst1 and Mst2 (Mst1/2), the core components of Hippo signaling, results in YAP activation and sustained liver growth, thereby leading to an eight- to tenfold increase in liver size within 3 months and occurrence of liver cancer within 5 months (Curr Biol 17(23):2054-2060, 2007; Cancer Cell 16(5):425-438, 2009; Cell 130(6):1120-1133, 2007; Cancer Cell 31(5):669-684 e667, 2017; Nat Commun 6:6239, 2015; Cell Rep 3(5):1663-1677, 2013). XMU-MP-1, an Mst1/2 inhibitor, is able to augment mouse liver and intestinal repair and regeneration in both acute and chronic injury mouse models (Sci Transl Med 8:352ra108, 2016).In addition, YAP-deficient mice show an impaired intestinal regenerative response after DSS treatment or gamma irradiation (Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(49):E1312-1320, 2011; Nature 493(7430):106-110, 2013; Genes Dev 24(21):2383-2388, 2010; J Vis Exp (111), 2010). IBS008738, a TAZ activator, facilitates muscle repair after cardiotoxin-induced muscle injury (Mol Cell Biol. 2014;34(9):1607-21). Deletion of Salvador (Sav) in mouse hearts enhances cardiomyocyte regeneration with reduced fibrosis and recovery of pumping function after myocardial infarction (MI) or resection of mouse cardiac apex (Development 140(23):4683-4690, 2013; Sci Signal 8(375):ra41, 2015; Nature 550(7675):260-264, 2017). This chapter provides a detailed description of procedures and important considerations when performing the protocols for the respective assays used to determine the effects of Hippo signaling on tissue repair and regeneration.

Role of Hippo signaling in regulating immunity.

The Hippo signaling pathway has been established as a key regulator of organ size control, tumor suppression, and tissue regeneration in multiple organisms. Recently, emerging evidence has indicated that Hippo signaling might play an important role in regulating the immune system in both Drosophila and mammals. In particular, patients bearing a loss-of-function mutation of MST1 are reported to have an autosomal recessive primary immunodeficiency syndrome. MST1/2 kinases, the mammalian orthologs of Drosophila Hippo, may activate the non-canonical Hippo signaling pathway via MOB1A/B and/or NDR1/2 or cross-talk with other essential signaling pathways to regulate both innate and adaptive immunity. In this review, we present and discuss recent findings of cellular mechanisms/functions of Hippo signaling in the innate immunity in Drosophila and in mammals, T cell immunity, as well as the implications of Hippo signaling for tumor immunity.

Publisher Correction: The transcriptional coactivator TAZ regulates reciprocal differentiation of TH17 cells and Treg cells.

In the version of this article initially published, the institution name for affiliation 3 (Maryland Anderson Cancer Center) was incorrect. The correct institution is MD Anderson Cancer Center. The error has been corrected in the HTML and PDF versions of the article.