Single-extracellular vesicle (EV) analyses validate the use of L1 Cell Adhesion Molecule (L1CAM) as a reliable biomarker of neuron-derived EVs.

Isolation of neuron-derived extracellular vesicles (NDEVs) with L1 Cell Adhesion Molecule (L1CAM)-specific antibodies has been widely used to identify blood biomarkers of CNS disorders. However, full methodological validation requires demonstration of L1CAM in individual NDEVs and lower levels or absence of L1CAM in individual EVs from other cells. Here, we used multiple single-EV techniques to establish the neuronal origin and determine the abundance of L1CAM-positive EVs in human blood. L1CAM epitopes of the ectodomain are shown to be co-expressed on single-EVs with the neuronal proteins ß-III-tubulin, GAP43, and VAMP2, the levels of which increase in parallel with the enrichment of L1CAM-positive EVs. Levels of L1CAM-positive EVs carrying the neuronal proteins VAMP2 and ß-III-tubulin range from 30% to 63%, in contrast to 0.8%-3.9% of L1CAM-negative EVs. Plasma fluid-phase L1CAM does not bind to single-EVs. Our findings support the use of L1CAM as a target for isolating plasma NDEVs and leveraging their cargo to identify biomarkers reflecting neuronal function.

A Panel of miRNA Biomarkers Common to Serum and Brain-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Identified in Mouse Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive motor neuron disease characterised by the deposition of aggregated proteins including TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) in vulnerable motor neurons and the brain. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) facilitate the spread of neurodegenerative diseases and can be easily accessed in the bloodstream. This study aimed to identify a panel of EV miRNAs that can capture the pathology occurring in the brain and peripheral circulation. EVs were isolated from the cortex (BDEVs) and serum (serum EVs) of 3 month-old and 6-month-old TDP-43*Q331K and TDP-43*WT mice. Following characterisation and miRNA isolation, the EVs underwent next-generation sequencing where 24 differentially packaged miRNAs were identified in the TDP-43*Q331K BDEVs and 7 in the TDP-43*Q331K serum EVs. Several miRNAs, including miR-183-5p, were linked to ALS. Additionally, miR-122-5p and miR-486b-5p were identified in both panels, demonstrating the ability of the serum EVs to capture the dysregulation occurring in the brain. This is the first study to identify miRNAs common to both the serum EVs and BDEVs in a mouse model of ALS.

Small RNA Profiles of Brain Tissue-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Alzheimer's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are emerging contributors to Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathophysiology. Differential abundance of ncRNAs carried by EVs may provide valuable insights into underlying disease mechanisms. Brain tissue-derived EVs (bdEVs) are particularly relevant, as they may offer valuable insights about the tissue of origin. However, there is limited research on diverse ncRNA species in bdEVs in AD. OBJECTIVE: This study explored whether the non-coding RNA composition of EVs isolated from post-mortem brain tissue is related to AD pathogenesis. METHODS: bdEVs from age-matched late-stage AD patients (n = 23) and controls (n = 10) that had been separated and characterized in our previous study were used for RNA extraction, small RNA sequencing, and qPCR verification. RESULTS: Significant differences of non-coding RNAs between AD and controls were found, especially for miRNAs and tRNAs. AD pathology-related miRNA and tRNA differences of bdEVs partially matched expression differences in source brain tissues. AD pathology had a more prominent association than biological sex with bdEV miRNA and tRNA components in late-stage AD brains. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides further evidence that EV non-coding RNAs from human brain tissue, including but not limited to miRNAs, may be altered and contribute to AD pathogenesis.

Dynamic release of neuronal extracellular vesicles containing miR-21a-5p is induced by hypoxia.

Hypoxia induces changes in the secretion of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in several non-neuronal cells and pathological conditions. EVs are packed with biomolecules, such as microRNA(miR)-21-5p, which respond to hypoxia. However, the true EV association of miR-21-5p, and its functional or biomarker relevance, are inadequately characterised. Neurons are extremely sensitive cells, and it is not known whether the secretion of neuronal EVs and miR-21-5p are altered upon hypoxia. Here, we characterised the temporal EV secretion profile and cell viability of neurons under hypoxia. Hypoxia induced a rapid increase of miR-21a-5p secretion in the EVs, which preceded the elevation of hypoxia-induced tissue or cellular miR-21a-5p. Prolonged hypoxia induced cell death and the release of morphologically distinct EVs. The EVs protected miR-21a-5p from enzymatic degradation but a remarkable fraction of miR-21a-5p remained fragile and non-EV associated. The increase in miR-21a-5p secretion may have biomarker potential, as high blood levels of miR-21-5p in stroke patients were associated with significant disability at hospital discharge. Our data provides an understanding of the dynamic regulation of EV secretion from neurons under hypoxia and provides a candidate for the prediction of recovery from ischemic stroke.

Extracellular vesicles with diagnostic and therapeutic potential for prion diseases.

Prion diseases (PrD) or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) are invariably fatal and pathogenic neurodegenerative disorders caused by the self-propagated misfolding of cellular prion protein (PrPC) to the neurotoxic pathogenic form (PrPTSE) via a yet undefined but profoundly complex mechanism. Despite several decades of research on PrD, the basic understanding of where and how PrPC is transformed to the misfolded, aggregation-prone and pathogenic PrPTSE remains elusive. The primary clinical hallmarks of PrD include vacuolation-associated spongiform changes and PrPTSE accumulation in neural tissue together with astrogliosis. The difficulty in unravelling the disease mechanisms has been related to the rare occurrence and long incubation period (over decades) followed by a very short clinical phase (few months). Additional challenge in unravelling the disease is implicated to the unique nature of the agent, its complexity and strain diversity, resulting in the heterogeneity of the clinical manifestations and potentially diverse disease mechanisms. Recent advances in tissue isolation and processing techniques have identified novel means of intercellular communication through extracellular vesicles (EVs) that contribute to PrPTSE transmission in PrD. This review will comprehensively discuss PrPTSE transmission and neurotoxicity, focusing on the role of EVs in disease progression, biomarker discovery and potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of PrD.

Cellular communication through extracellular vesicles and lipid droplets.

Cellular communication is essential for effective coordination of biological processes. One major form of intercellular communication occurs via the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs). These vesicles mediate intercellular communication through the transfer of their cargo and are actively explored for their role in various diseases and their potential therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Conversely, lipid droplets (LDs) are vesicles that transfer cargo within cells. Lipid droplets play roles in various diseases and evidence for their ability to transfer cargo between cells is emerging. To date, there has been little interdisciplinary research looking at the similarities and interactions between these two classes of small lipid vesicles. This review will compare the commonalities and differences between EVs and LDs including their biogenesis and secretion, isolation and characterisation methodologies, composition, and general heterogeneity and discuss challenges and opportunities in both fields.

Relationships of APOE Genotypes With Small RNA and Protein Cargo of Brain Tissue Extracellular Vesicles From Patients With Late-Stage AD.

Background and Objectives: Variants of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene are the greatest known risk factors for sporadic Alzheimer disease (AD). Three major APOE isoform alleles, ε2, ε3, and ε4, encode and produce proteins that differ by only 1-2 amino acids but have different binding partner interactions. Whereas APOE ε2 is protective against AD relative to ε3, ε4 is associated with an increased risk for AD development. However, the role of APOE in gene regulation in AD pathogenesis has remained largely undetermined. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-delimited particles released by cells to dispose of unwanted materials and mediate intercellular communication, and they are implicated in AD pathophysiology. Brain-derived EVs (bdEVs) could act locally in the tissue and reflect cellular changes. To reveal whether APOE genotype affects EV components in AD brains, bdEVs were separated from patients with AD with different APOE genotypes for parallel small RNA and protein profile. Methods: bdEVs from late-stage AD brains (BRAAK stages 5-6) from patients with APOE genotypes ε2/3 (n = 5), ε3/3 (n = 5), ε3/4 (n = 6), and ε4/4 (n = 6) were separated using our published protocol into a 10,000g pelleted extracellular fraction (10K) and a further purified EV fraction. Counting, sizing, and multiomic characterization by small RNA sequencing and proteomic analysis were performed for 10K, EVs, and source tissue. Results: Comparing APOE genotypes, no significant differences in bdEV total particle concentration or morphology were observed. Overall small RNA and protein profiles of 10K, EVs, and source tissue also did not differ substantially between different APOE genotypes. However, several differences in individual RNAs (including miRNAs and tRNAs) and proteins in 10K and EVs were observed when comparing the highest and lowest risk groups (ε4/4 and ε2/3). Bioinformatic analysis and previous publications indicate a potential regulatory role of these molecules in AD. Discussion: For patients with late-stage AD in this study, only a few moderate differences were observed for small RNA and protein profiles between APOE genotypes. Among these, several newly identified 10K and EV-associated molecules may play roles in AD progression. Possibly, larger genotype-related differences exist and are more apparent in or before earlier disease stages.

Brain Tissue-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Alzheimer's Disease Display Altered Key Protein Levels Including Cell Type-Specific Markers.

BACKGROUND: Brain tissue-derived extracellular vesicles (bdEVs) play neurodegenerative and protective roles, including in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Extracellular vesicles (EVs) may also leave the brain to betray the state of the CNS in the periphery. Only a few studies have profiled the proteome of bdEVs and source brain tissue. Additionally, studies focusing on bdEV cell type-specific surface markers are rare. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to reveal the pathological mechanisms inside the brain by profiling the tissue and bdEV proteomes in AD patients. In addition, to indicate targets for capturing and molecular profiling of bdEVs in the periphery, CNS cell-specific markers were profiled on the intact bdEV surface. METHODS: bdEVs were separated and followed by EV counting and sizing. Brain tissue and bdEVs from age-matched AD patients and controls were then proteomically profiled. Total tau (t-tau), phosphorylated tau (p-tau), and antioxidant peroxiredoxins (PRDX) 1 and 6 were measured by immunoassay in an independent bdEV separation. Neuron, microglia, astrocyte, and endothelia markers were detected on intact EVs by multiplexed ELISA. RESULTS: Overall, concentration of recovered bdEVs was not affected by AD. Proteome differences between AD and control were more pronounced for bdEVs than for brain tissue. Levels of t-tau, p-tau, PRDX1, and PRDX6 were significantly elevated in AD bdEVs compared with controls. Release of certain cell-specific bdEV markers was increased in AD. CONCLUSION: Several bdEV proteins are involved in AD mechanisms and may be used for disease monitoring. The identified CNS cell markers may be useful tools for peripheral bdEV capture.

Therapeutically harnessing extracellular vesicles.

The field of extracellular vesicle (EV) research has developed rapidly over the last decade from the study of fundamental biology to a subject of significant clinical relevance. The potential of harnessing EVs in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases - including cancer and neurological and cardiovascular disorders - is now being recognized. Accordingly, the applications of EVs as therapeutic targets, biomarkers, novel drug delivery agents and standalone therapeutics are being actively explored. This Review provides a brief overview of the characteristics and physiological functions of the various classes of EV, focusing on their association with disease and emerging strategies for their therapeutic exploitation.

Oral administration of bovine milk-derived extracellular vesicles induces senescence in the primary tumor but accelerates cancer metastasis.

The concept that extracellular vesicles (EVs) from the diet can be absorbed by the intestinal tract of the consuming organism, be bioavailable in various organs, and in-turn exert phenotypic changes is highly debatable. Here, we isolate EVs from both raw and commercial bovine milk and characterize them by electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, western blotting, quantitative proteomics and small RNA sequencing analysis. Orally administered bovine milk-derived EVs survive the harsh degrading conditions of the gut, in mice, and is subsequently detected in multiple organs. Milk-derived EVs orally administered to mice implanted with colorectal and breast cancer cells reduce the primary tumor burden. Intriguingly, despite the reduction in primary tumor growth, milk-derived EVs accelerate metastasis in breast and pancreatic cancer mouse models. Proteomic and biochemical analysis reveal the induction of senescence and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in cancer cells upon treatment with milk-derived EVs. Timing of EV administration is critical as oral administration after resection of the primary tumor reverses the pro-metastatic effects of milk-derived EVs in breast cancer models. Taken together, our study provides context-based and opposing roles of milk-derived EVs as metastasis inducers and suppressors.

Extracellular Vesicles in Synovial Fluid from Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients Contain miRNAs with Capacity to Modulate Inflammation.

In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), extracellular vesicles (EVs) are associated with both the propagation and attenuation of joint inflammation and destruction. However, the specific EV content responsible for these processes is largely unknown. Investigations into identifying EV content are confounded by the challenges in obtaining high-quality EV preparations from synovial fluid. Implementing a size exclusion chromatography-based method of EV isolation, coupled with small RNA sequencing, we accurately characterised EV miRNAs in synovial fluid obtained from RA patients and investigated the differences between joints with high- and low-grade inflammation. Synovial fluid was obtained from the joints of 12 RA patients and, based on leukocyte counts, classified as either high (n = 7)- or low (n = 5)-grade inflammation. Using size exclusion chromatography, EVs were purified and small RNA was extracted and sequenced on a NextSeq 500. Sequencing reads were aligned to miRBase v21, and differences in miRNA profiles between RA patients with high- and low-grade joint inflammation were analysed. In total, 1972 distinct miRNAs were identified from RA synovial fluid EVs. miRNAs with less than five reads in fewer than five patients were filtered out, leaving 318 miRNAs for analysis. Analysis of the most abundant miRNAs suggested that they negatively regulate multiple genes relevant to inflammation, including signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), which lies downstream of IL-6 and has a pro-inflammatory role in RA. Synovial fluid from joints with high-grade inflammation contained 3.5-fold more EV miRNA per mL of synovial fluid (p = 0.0017). Seventy-eight EV miRNAs were differentially expressed between RA joints with high- and low-grade inflammation, and pathway analysis revealed that their target genes were commonly involved a variety of processes, including cellular apoptosis, proliferation and migration. Of the 49 miRNAs that were elevated in joints with high-grade inflammation, pathway analysis revealed that genes involved in cytokine-mediated signalling pathways were significantly enriched targets. In contrast, genes associated with reactive oxygen species signalling were significantly enriched as targets of the 29 miRNAs elevated in joints with low-grade inflammation. Our study identified an abundance of EV miRNAs from the synovial fluid of RA patients with the potential to modulate inflammation. In doing so, we defined potential mechanisms by which synovial fluid EVs may contribute to RA pathophysiology.

Molecular signaling pathways underlying schizophrenia.

The molecular pathophysiological mechanisms underlying schizophrenia have remained unknown, and no treatment exists for primary prevention. We used Ingenuity Pathway Analysis to analyze canonical and causal pathways in two different datasets, including patients from Finland and USA. The most significant findings in canonical pathway analysis were observed for glutamate receptor signaling, hepatic fibrosis, and glycoprotein 6 (GP6) pathways in the Finnish dataset, and GP6 and hepatic fibrosis pathways in the US dataset. In data-driven causal pathways, ADCYAP1, ADAMTS, and CACNA genes were involved in the majority of the top 10 pathways differentiating patients and controls in both Finnish and US datasets. Results from a Finnish nation-wide database showed that the risk of schizophrenia relapse was 41% lower among first-episode patients during the use of losartan, the master regulator of an ADCYAP1, ADAMTS, and CACNA-related pathway, compared to those time periods when the same individual did not use the drug. The results from the two independent datasets suggest that the GP6 signaling pathway, and the ADCYAP1, ADAMTS, and CACNA-related purine, oxidative stress, and glutamatergic signaling pathways are among primary pathophysiological alterations in schizophrenia among patients with European ancestry. While no reproducible dopaminergic alterations were observed, the results imply that agents such as losartan, and ADCYAP1/PACAP -deficit alleviators, such as metabotropic glutamate 2/3 agonist MGS0028 and 5-HT7 antagonists - which have shown beneficial effects in an experimental Adcyap1-/- mouse model for schizophrenia - could be potential treatments even before the full manifestation of illness involving dopaminergic abnormalities.

Staphylococcus aureus membrane vesicles contain immunostimulatory DNA, RNA and peptidoglycan that activate innate immune receptors and induce autophagy.

Gram-positive bacteria ubiquitously produce membrane vesicles (MVs), and although they contribute to biological functions, our knowledge regarding their composition and immunogenicity remains limited. Here we examine the morphology, contents and immunostimulatory functions of MVs produced by three Staphylococcus aureus strains; a methicillin resistant clinical isolate, a methicillin sensitive clinical isolate and a laboratory-adapted strain. We observed differences in the number and morphology of MVs produced by each strain and showed that they contain microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) including protein, nucleic acids and peptidoglycan. Analysis of MV-derived RNA indicated the presence of small RNA (sRNA). Furthermore, we detected variability in the amount and composition of protein, nucleic acid and peptidoglycan cargo carried by MVs from each S. aureus strain. S. aureus MVs activated Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2, 7, 8, 9 and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing protein 2 (NOD2) signalling and promoted cytokine and chemokine release by epithelial cells, thus identifying that MV-associated MAMPs including DNA, RNA and peptidoglycan are detected by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Moreover, S. aureus MVs induced the formation of and colocalized with autophagosomes in epithelial cells, while inhibition of lysosomal acidification using bafilomycin A1 resulted in accumulation of autophagosomal puncta that colocalized with MVs, revealing the ability of the host to degrade MVs via autophagy. This study reveals the ability of DNA, RNA and peptidoglycan associated with MVs to activate PRRs in host epithelial cells, and their intracellular degradation via autophagy. These findings advance our understanding of the immunostimulatory roles of Gram-positive bacterial MVs in mediating pathogenesis, and their intracellular fate within the host.

Distribution of microRNA profiles in pre-clinical and clinical forms of murine and human prion disease.

Prion diseases are distinguished by long pre-clinical incubation periods during which prions actively propagate in the brain and cause neurodegeneration. In the pre-clinical stage, we hypothesize that upon prion infection, transcriptional changes occur that can lead to early neurodegeneration. A longitudinal analysis of miRNAs in pre-clinical and clinical forms of murine prion disease demonstrated dynamic expression changes during disease progression in the affected thalamus region and serum. Serum samples at each timepoint were collected whereby extracellular vesicles (EVs) were isolated and used to identify blood-based biomarkers reflective of pathology in the brain. Differentially expressed EV miRNAs were validated in human clinical samples from patients with human sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD), with the molecular subtype at codon 129 either methionine-methionine (MM, n = 14) or valine-valine (VV, n = 12) compared to controls (n = 20). EV miRNA biomarkers associated with prion infection predicted sCJD with an AUC of 0.800 (85% sensitivity and 66.7% specificity) in a second independent validation cohort (n = 26) of sCJD and control patients with MM or VV subtype. This study discovered clinically relevant miRNAs that benefit diagnostic development to detect prion-related diseases and therapeutic development to inhibit prion infectivity.

Chronic methamphetamine interacts with BDNF Val66Met to remodel psychosis pathways in the mesocorticolimbic proteome.

Methamphetamine (Meth) abuse has reached epidemic proportions in many countries and can induce psychotic episodes mimicking the clinical profile of schizophrenia. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is implicated in both Meth effects and schizophrenia. We therefore studied the long-term effects of chronic Meth exposure in transgenic mice engineered to harbor the human BDNFVal66Met polymorphism expressed via endogenous mouse promoters. These mice were chronically treated with an escalating Meth regime during late adolescence. At least 4 weeks later, all hBDNFVal66Met Meth-treated mice exhibited sensitization confirming persistent behavioral effects of Meth. We used high-resolution quantitative mass spectrometry-based proteomics to biochemically map the long-term effects of Meth within the brain, resulting in the unbiased detection of 4808 proteins across the mesocorticolimbic circuitry. Meth differentially altered dopamine signaling markers (e.g., Dat, Comt, and Th) between hBDNFVal/Val and hBDNFMet/Met mice, implicating involvement of BDNF in Meth-induced reprogramming of the mesolimbic proteome. Targeted analysis of 336 schizophrenia-risk genes, as well as 82 growth factor cascade markers, similarly revealed that hBDNFVal66Met genotype gated the recruitment of these factors by Meth in a region-specific manner. Cumulatively, these data represent the first comprehensive analysis of the long-term effects of chronic Meth exposure within the mesocorticolimbic circuitry. In addition, these data reveal that long-term Meth-induced brain changes are strongly dependent upon BDNF genetic variation, illustrating how drug-induced psychosis may be modulated at the molecular level by a single genetic locus.

Extracellular vesicles - propagators of neuropathology and sources of potential biomarkers and therapeutics for neurodegenerative diseases.

Neurodegenerative diseases are characterised by the irreversible degeneration of neurons in the central or peripheral nervous systems. These include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and prion diseases. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), a type of EV involved in cellular communication, have been well documented as propagating neurodegenerative diseases. These sEVs carry cargo, such as proteins and RNA, to recipient cells but are also capable of promoting protein misfolding, thus actively contributing to the progression of these diseases. sEV secretion is also a compensatory process for lysosomal dysfunction in the affected cells, despite inadvertently propagating disease to recipient cells. Despite this, sEV miRNAs have biomarker potential for the early diagnosis of these diseases, while stem cell-derived sEVs and those generated through exogenous assistance demonstrate the greatest therapeutic potential. This Review will highlight novel advancements in the involvement of sEVs as propagators of neuropathology, biomarkers and potential therapeutics in neurodegenerative diseases.

Mitochondrial RNA in Alzheimer's Disease Circulating Extracellular Vesicles.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia. Amyloid ß (Aß) plaques, tau-containing neurofibrillary tangles, and neuronal loss leading to brain atrophy are pathologic hallmarks of AD. Given the importance of early diagnosis, extensive efforts have been undertaken to identify diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for AD. Circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs) provide a platform for "liquid biopsy" biomarkers for AD. Here, we characterized the RNA contents of plasma EVs of age-matched individuals who were cognitively normal (healthy controls (HC)) or had mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to AD or had mild AD dementia (AD). Using RNA sequencing analysis, we found that mitochondrial (mt)-RNAs, including MT-ND1-6 mRNAs and other protein-coding and non-coding mt-RNAs, were strikingly elevated in plasma EVs of MCI and AD individuals compared with HC. EVs secreted from cultured astrocytes, microglia, and neurons after exposure to toxic conditions relevant to AD pathogenesis (Aß aggregates and H2O2), contained mitochondrial structures (detected by electron microscopy) and mitochondrial RNA and protein. We propose that in the AD brain, toxicity-causing mitochondrial damage results in the packaging of mitochondrial components for export in EVs and further propose that mt-RNAs in plasma EVs can be diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for MCI and AD.

Proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles reveals an immunogenic cargo in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluid.

OBJECTIVES: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial fluid (SF) have been reported to stimulate the release of pro-inflammatory mediators from recipient cells. We recently developed a size exclusion chromatography (SEC)-based method for EV isolation capable of high-quality enrichments from human SF. Here, we employed this method to accurately characterise the SF EV proteome and investigate potential contributions to inflammatory pathways in RA. METHODS: Using our SEC-based approach, SF EVs were purified from the joints of RA patients classified as having high-level (n = 7) or low-level inflammation (n = 5), and from osteoarthritis (OA) patients (n = 5). Protein profiles were characterised by mass spectrometry. Potential contributions of EV proteins to pathological pathways and differences in protein expression between disease groups were investigated. RESULTS: Synovial fluid EVs were present at higher concentrations in RA joints with high-level inflammation (P-value = 0.004) but were smaller in diameter (P-value = 0.03) than in low-level inflammation. In total, 1058 SF EV proteins were identified by mass spectrometry analysis. Neutrophil and fibroblast markers were overrepresented in all disease groups. Numerous proteins with potential to modulate inflammatory and immunological processes were detected, including nine citrullinated peptides. Forty-five and 135 EV-associated proteins were significantly elevated in RA joints with high-level inflammation than in RA joints with low-level inflammation and OA joints, respectively. Gene ontology analysis revealed significant enrichment for proteins associated with 'neutrophil degranulation' within SF EVs from RA joints with high-level inflammation. CONCLUSION: Our results provide new information about SF EVs and insight into how EVs might contribute to the perpetuation of RA.

Small RNA fingerprinting of Alzheimer's disease frontal cortex extracellular vesicles and their comparison with peripheral extracellular vesicles.

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, with the strongest disease-associated changes observed at clinical or end-stage disease. Transcriptomic deregulation of miRNA expression can spread via "horizontal" RNA transfer through extracellular vesicles (EVs) to act in conjunction with proteins, leading to changes in mRNA, which can provide early signals to indicate forthcoming neuropathological changes in the brain. Here, we analysed the small RNA content, in particular, miRNA, contained in brain-derived EVs isolated from the frontal cortex of Alzheimer's subjects (n = 8) and neurological control subjects (n = 9). Brain-derived EVs were found to contain an upregulation of disease-associated miRNA. RNA species from brain-derived EVs were correlated with miRNA profiles obtained from matching total brain homogenate. These results provide a blueprint into the biological pathways potentially effected during disease that may be assisted by brain-derived EV RNA horizontal transfer.We also correlated the miRNA changes in the brain with those detected in peripheral EVs collected from serum of Alzheimer's disease patients (n = 23, and healthy controls, n = 23) and revealed a panel of miRNA that could be used as a liquid brain biopsy. Overall, our study provides the first interrogation of the small RNA contents in brain-derived EVs and how they could be used to understand the early pathological changes in Alzheimer's disease which will benefit the development of an early diagnostic blood test.

Influence of species and processing parameters on recovery and content of brain tissue-derived extracellular vesicles.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes by shuttling material out of and between cells. Tissue EVs may thus lend insights into disease mechanisms and also betray disease when released into easily accessed biological fluids. Since brain-derived EVs (bdEVs) and their cargo may serve as biomarkers of neurodegenerative diseases, we evaluated modifications to a published, rigorous protocol for separation of EVs from brain tissue and studied effects of processing variables on quantitative and qualitative outcomes. To this end, size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation were compared as final separation steps in protocols involving stepped ultracentrifugation. bdEVs were separated from brain tissues of human, macaque, and mouse. Effects of tissue perfusion and a model of post-mortem interval (PMI) before final bdEV separation were probed. MISEV2018-compliant EV characterization was performed, and both small RNA and protein profiling were done. We conclude that the modified, SEC-employing protocol achieves EV separation efficiency roughly similar to a protocol using gradient density ultracentrifugation, while decreasing operator time and, potentially, variability. The protocol appears to yield bdEVs of higher purity for human tissues compared with those of macaque and, especially, mouse, suggesting opportunities for optimization. Where possible, perfusion should be performed in animal models. The interval between death/tissue storage/processing and final bdEV separation can also affect bdEV populations and composition and should thus be recorded for rigorous reporting. Finally, different populations of EVs obtained through the modified method reported herein display characteristic RNA and protein content that hint at biomarker potential. To conclude, this study finds that the automatable and increasingly employed technique of SEC can be applied to tissue EV separation, and also reveals more about the importance of species-specific and technical considerations when working with tissue EVs. These results are expected to enhance the use of bdEVs in revealing and understanding brain disease.