A Fluorescence-Based Assay for Measuring Polyamine Biosynthesis Aminopropyl Transferase-Mediated Catalysis.

Polyamines are polycationic molecules that are crucial in a wide array of cellular functions. Their biosynthesis is mediated by aminopropyl transferases (APTs), which are promising targets for antimicrobial, antineoplastic and antineurodegenerative therapies. A major limitation in studying APT enzymes, however, is the lack of high-throughput assays to measure their activity. We have developed the first fluorescence-based assay, DAB-APT, for the measurement of APT activity using 1,2-diacetyl benzene (DAB), which forms fluorescent conjugates with putrescine, spermidine, and spermine, with fluorescence intensity increasing with the carbon chain length. The assay has been validated using APT enzymes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Plasmodium falciparum, and the data further validated by mass spectrometry and thin-layer chromatography. Using mass spectrometry analysis, the structures of the fluorescent putrescine, spermidine and spermine 1,2-DAB adducts were determined to be substituted 1,3-dimethyl isoindoles. The DAB-APT assay is optimized for high-throughput screening, facilitating the evaluation of large chemical libraries. Given the critical roles of APTs in infectious diseases, oncology, and neurobiology, the DAB-APT assay offers a powerful tool with broad applicability, poised to drive advancements in research and drug discovery.

A set of diagnostic tests for detection of active Babesia duncani infection.

OBJECTIVES: Human babesiosis is an emerging and potentially fatal tick-borne disease caused by intraerythrocytic parasites of the Babesia genus. Among these, Babesia duncani is particularly notable for causing severe and life-threatening illness in humans. Accurate diagnosis and effective disease management hinge on the detection of active B. duncani infections. While molecular assays are available to detect the parasite in blood, a reliable method for identifying biomarkers of active infection remains elusive. METHODS: We developed the first B. duncani antigen capture assays, targeting two immunodominant antigens, BdV234 and BdV38. These assays were validated using established in vitro and in vivo B. duncani infection models, and following drug treatment. RESULTS: The assays demonstrated no cross-reactivity with other species such as B. microti, B. divergens, Babesia MO1, or Plasmodium falciparum, and can detect as few as 115 infected erythrocytes/µl of blood. Screening of 1731 blood samples from various biorepositories, including samples previously identified as Lyme and/or B. microti-positive, as well as new specimens from wild mice, revealed no evidence of B. duncani infection or cross-reactivity. CONCLUSIONS: These assays hold significant promise for various applications, including point-of-care testing for the early detection of B. duncani in patients, field tests for screening reservoir hosts, and high-throughput screening of blood samples intended for transfusion.

Vitamin B5 metabolism is essential for vacuolar and mitochondrial functions and drug detoxification in fungi.

Fungal infections, a leading cause of mortality among eukaryotic pathogens, pose a growing global health threat due to the rise of drug-resistant strains. New therapeutic strategies are urgently needed to combat this challenge. The PCA pathway for biosynthesis of Co-enzyme A (CoA) and Acetyl-CoA (AcCoA) from vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) has been validated as an excellent target for the development of new antimicrobials against fungi and protozoa. The pathway regulates key cellular processes including metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids, sterols, and heme. In this study, we provide genetic evidence that disruption of the PCA pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae results in a significant alteration in the susceptibility of fungi to a wide range of xenobiotics, including clinically approved antifungal drugs through alteration of vacuolar morphology and drug detoxification. The drug potentiation mediated by genetic regulation of genes in the PCA pathway could be recapitulated using the pantazine analog PZ-2891 as well as the celecoxib derivative, AR-12 through inhibition of fungal AcCoA synthase activity. Collectively, the data validate the PCA pathway as a suitable target for enhancing the efficacy and safety of current antifungal therapies.

A Set of Diagnostic Tests for Detection of Active Babesia duncani Infection.

Human babesiosis is a rapidly emerging and potentially fatal tick-borne disease caused by intraerythrocytic apicomplexan parasites of the Babesia genus. Among the various species of Babesia that infect humans, B. duncani has been found to cause severe and life-threatening infections. Detection of active B. duncani infection is critical for accurate diagnosis and effective management of the disease. While molecular assays for the detection of B. duncani infection in blood are available, a reliable strategy to detect biomarkers of active infection has not yet been developed. Here, we report the development of the first B. duncani antigen capture assays that rely on the detection of two B. duncani -exported immunodominant antigens, BdV234 and BdV38. The assays were validated using blood samples from cultured parasites in human erythrocytes and B. duncani -infected laboratory mice at different parasitemia levels and following therapy. The assays display high specificity with no cross-reactivity with B. microti , B. divergens , Babesia MO1, or P. falciparum. The assay also demonstrates high sensitivity, detecting as low as 115 infected erythrocytes/µl of blood. Screening of 1,731 blood samples from diverse biorepositories, including previously identified Lyme and/or B. microti positive human samples and new specimens from field mice, showed no evidence of B. duncani infection in these samples. The assays could be useful in diverse diagnostic scenarios, including point-of-care testing for early B. duncani infection detection in patients, field tests for screening reservoir hosts, and high-throughput screening such as blood collected for transfusion. Short summary: We developed two ELISA-based assays, BdACA38 and BdACA234, for detecting B. duncani , a potentially fatal tick-borne parasite causing human babesiosis. The assays target two immunodominant antigens, BdV234 and BdV38, demonstrating high specificity (no cross-reactivity with other Babesia species or Plasmodium falciparum ) and sensitivity (detecting as low as 115 infected erythrocytes/µl). The assays were validated using in vitro-cultured parasites and infected mice. Screening diverse blood samples showed no evidence of B. duncani active infection among 1,731 human and field mice blood samples collected from the north-eastern, midwestern, and western US. These assays offer potential in diverse diagnostic scenarios, including early patient detection, reservoir animal screening, and transfusion-transmitted babesiosis prevention.

DAB-APT: a Fluorescence-Based Assay for Determining Aminopropyl Transferase Activity and Inhibition.

Polyamines are polycationic molecules that are crucial in a wide array of cellular functions. Their biosynthesis is mediated by aminopropyl transferases (APTs), promising targets in antimicrobial, antineoplastic and antineurodegenerative therapies. A major limitation, however, is the lack of high-throughput assays to measure their activity. We developed the first fluorescence-based assay, DAB-APT, for measurement of APT activity using 1,2-diacetyl benzene, which forms fluorescent conjugates with putrescine, spermidine and spermine with fluorescence intensity increasing with increasing carbon chain length. The assay has been validated using APT enzymes from S. cerevisiae and P. falciparum and is suitable for high-throughput screening of large chemical libraries. Given the importance of APTs in infectious diseases, cancer and neurobiology, our DAB-APT assay has broad applications, holding promise for advancing research and drug discovery efforts.

Phosphatidylserine-exposing extracellular vesicles in body fluids are an innate defence against apoptotic mimicry viral pathogens.

Some viruses are rarely transmitted orally or sexually despite their presence in saliva, breast milk, or semen. We previously identified that extracellular vesicles (EVs) in semen and saliva inhibit Zika virus infection. However, the antiviral spectrum and underlying mechanism remained unclear. Here we applied lipidomics and flow cytometry to show that these EVs expose phosphatidylserine (PS). By blocking PS receptors, targeted by Zika virus in the process of apoptotic mimicry, they interfere with viral attachment and entry. Consequently, physiological concentrations of EVs applied in vitro efficiently inhibited infection by apoptotic mimicry dengue, West Nile, Chikungunya, Ebola and vesicular stomatitis viruses, but not severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, human immunodeficiency virus 1, hepatitis C virus and herpesviruses that use other entry receptors. Our results identify the role of PS-rich EVs in body fluids in innate defence against infection via viral apoptotic mimicries, explaining why these viruses are primarily transmitted via PS-EV-deficient blood or blood-ingesting arthropods rather than direct human-to-human contact.

Babesia BdFE1 esterase is required for the anti-parasitic activity of the ACE inhibitor fosinopril.

Effective and safe therapies for the treatment of diseases caused by intraerythrocytic parasites are impeded by the rapid emergence of drug resistance and the lack of novel drug targets. One such disease is human babesiosis, which is a rapidly emerging tick-borne illness caused by Babesia parasites. In this study, we identified fosinopril, a phosphonate-containing, FDA-approved angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor commonly used as a prodrug for hypertension and heart failure, as a potent inhibitor of Babesia duncani parasite development within human erythrocytes. Cell biological and mass spectrometry analyses revealed that the conversion of fosinopril to its active diacid molecule, fosinoprilat, is essential for its antiparasitic activity. We show that this conversion is mediated by a parasite-encoded esterase, BdFE1, which is highly conserved among apicomplexan parasites. Parasites carrying the L238H mutation in the active site of BdFE1 failed to convert the prodrug to its active moiety and became resistant to the drug. Our data set the stage for the development of this class of drugs for the therapy of vector-borne parasitic diseases.

Transcatheter Arterial Embolization for Palliation of Uterine Body Cancer Bleeding.

Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE) for bleeding due to uterine body cancer. Materials and Methods: In this retrospective study, six patients with varying types of uterine body cancer who underwent TAE for bleeding control were investigated. Angiographic findings, cross-sectional images, TAE details, and clinical outcomes were studied. Technical and clinical success rates were calculated. Results: The identified patients had endometrioid adenocarcinoma, sarcoma, and gestational trophoblastic neoplasia, and most were patients with advanced-stage cancer. In four patients, tumor bleeding presented as vaginal bleeding. Technical success was achieved in all seven TAE procedures in six patients. Two patients with recurrent masses who had undergone hysterectomy presented with hematochezia, and TAE was able to provide technical success in these patients as well. The clinical success rate was 50%, indicating bleeding control for > 1 week. Rebleeding was directly associated with death in one patient. On the following day, mild fever was observed in one patient. Conclusion: TAE can be considered an effective and safe method of bleeding control for uterine body cancer, especially during critical periods throughout the disease course of patients with inoperable, advanced-stage cancer.

Maturation of the malarial phosphatidylserine decarboxylase is mediated by high affinity binding to anionic phospholipids.

Decarboxylation of phosphatidylserine (PS) to form phosphatidylethanolamine by PS decarboxylases (PSDs) is an essential process in most eukaryotes. Processing of a malarial PSD proenzyme into its active alpha and beta subunits is by an autoendoproteolytic mechanism regulated by anionic phospholipids, with PS serving as an activator and phosphatidylglycerol (PG), phosphatidylinositol, and phosphatidic acid acting as inhibitors. The biophysical mechanism underlying this regulation remains unknown. We used solid phase lipid binding, liposome-binding assays, and surface plasmon resonance to examine the binding specificity of a processing-deficient Plasmodium PSD (PkPSDS308A) mutant enzyme and demonstrated that the PSD proenzyme binds strongly to PS and PG but not to phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine. The equilibrium dissociation constants (Kd) of PkPSD with PS and PG were 80.4 nM and 66.4 nM, respectively. The interaction of PSD with PS is inhibited by calcium, suggesting that the binding mechanism involves ionic interactions. In vitro processing of WT PkPSD proenzyme was also inhibited by calcium, consistent with the conclusion that PS binding to PkPSD through ionic interactions is required for the proenzyme processing. Peptide mapping identified polybasic amino acid motifs in the proenzyme responsible for binding to PS. Altogether, the data demonstrate that malarial PSD maturation is regulated through a strong physical association between PkPSD proenzyme and anionic lipids. Inhibition of the specific interaction between the proenzyme and the lipids can provide a novel mechanism to disrupt PSD enzyme activity, which has been suggested as a target for antimicrobials, and anticancer therapies.

Epitope profiling of monoclonal antibodies to the immunodominant antigen BmGPI12 of the human pathogen Babesia microti.

The significant rise in the number of tick-borne diseases represents a major threat to public health worldwide. One such emerging disease is human babesiosis, which is caused by several protozoan parasites of the Babesia genus of which B. microti is responsible for most clinical cases reported to date. Recent studies have shown that during its intraerythrocytic life cycle, B. microti exports several antigens into the mammalian host using a novel vesicular-mediated secretion mechanism. One of these secreted proteins is the immunodominant antigen BmGPI12, which has been demonstrated to be a reliable biomarker of active B. microti infection. The major immunogenic determinants of this antigen remain unknown. Here we provide a comprehensive molecular and serological characterization of a set of eighteen monoclonal antibodies developed against BmGPI12 and a detailed profile of their binding specificity and suitability in the detection of active B. microti infection. Serological profiling and competition assays using synthetic peptides identified five unique epitopes on the surface of BmGPI12 which are recognized by a set of eight monoclonal antibodies. ELISA-based antigen detection assays identified five antibody combinations that specifically detect the secreted form of BmGPI12 in plasma samples from B. microti-infected mice and humans but not from other Babesia species or P. falciparum.

High-resolution crystal structure and chemical screening reveal pantothenate kinase as a new target for antifungal development.

Fungal infections are the leading cause of mortality by eukaryotic pathogens, with an estimated 150 million severe life-threatening cases and 1.7 million deaths reported annually. The rapid emergence of multidrug-resistant fungal isolates highlights the urgent need for new drugs with new mechanisms of action. In fungi, pantothenate phosphorylation, catalyzed by PanK enzyme, is the first step in the utilization of pantothenic acid and coenzyme A biosynthesis. In all fungi sequenced so far, this enzyme is encoded by a single PanK gene. Here, we report the crystal structure of a fungal PanK alone as well as with high-affinity inhibitors from a single chemotype identified through a high-throughput chemical screen. Structural, biochemical, and functional analyses revealed mechanisms governing substrate and ligand binding, dimerization, and catalysis and helped identify new compounds that inhibit the growth of several Candida species. The data validate PanK as a promising target for antifungal drug development.

Specific and Sensitive Diagnosis of Babesia microti Active Infection Using Monoclonal Antibodies to the Immunodominant Antigen BmGPI12.

The apicomplexan pathogen Babesia microti is responsible for most cases of human babesiosis worldwide. The disease, which presents as a malaria-like illness, is potentially fatal in immunocompromised or elderly patients, making the need for its accurate and early diagnosis an urgent public health concern. B. microti is transmitted primarily by Ixodes ticks but can also be transmitted via blood transfusion. The parasite completes its asexual reproduction in the host red blood cell, where each invading merozoite develops and multiplies to produce four daughter parasites. While various techniques, such as microscopy, PCR, and indirect fluorescence, have been used over the years for babesiosis diagnosis, detection of the secreted B. microti immunodominant antigen BmGPI12 using specific polyclonal antibodies was found to be the most effective method for the diagnosis of active infection and for evaluation of clearance following drug treatment. Here, we report the development of a panel of 16 monoclonal antibodies against BmGPI12. These antibodies detected secreted BmGPI12 in the plasma of infected humans. Antigen capture assays identified a combination of two monoclonal antibodies, 4C8 and 1E11, as a basis for a monoclonal antibody-based BmGPI12 capture assay (mGPAC) to detect active B. microti infection. Using a collection of 105 previously characterized human plasma samples, the mGPAC assay showed 97.1% correlation with RNA-based PCR (transcription-mediated amplification [TMA]) for positive and negative samples. The mGPAC assay also detected BmGPI12 in the plasma of six babesiosis patients at the time of diagnosis but not in three matched posttreatment samples. The mGPAC assay could thus be used alone or in combination with other assays for accurate detection of active B. microti infection.

Evidence for a Conserved Function of Eukaryotic Pantothenate Kinases in the Regulation of Mitochondrial Homeostasis and Oxidative Stress.

Human PANK1, PANK2, and PANK3 genes encode several pantothenate kinase isoforms that catalyze the phosphorylation of vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) to phosphopantothenate, a critical step in the biosynthesis of the major cellular cofactor, Coenzyme A (CoA). Mutations in the PANK2 gene, which encodes the mitochondrial pantothenate kinase (PanK) isoform, have been linked to pantothenate-kinase associated neurodegeneration (PKAN), a debilitating and often fatal progressive neurodegeneration of children and young adults. While the biochemical properties of these enzymes have been well-characterized in vitro, their expression in a model organism such as yeast in order to probe their function under cellular conditions have never been achieved. Here we used three yeast mutants carrying missense mutations in the yeast PanK gene, CAB1, which are associated with defective growth at high temperature and iron, mitochondrial dysfunction, increased iron content, and oxidative stress, to assess the cellular function of human PANK genes and functional conservation of the CoA-controlled processes between humans and yeast. Overexpression of human PANK1 and PANK3 in these mutants restored normal cellular activity whereas complementation with PANK2 was partial and could only be achieved with an isoform, PanK2mtmΔ, lacking the mitochondrial transit peptide. These data, which demonstrate functional conservation of PanK activity between humans and yeast, set the stage for the use of yeast as a model system to investigate the impact of PKAN-associated mutations on the metabolic pathways altered in this disease.

Synthesis and preliminary evaluation of 211At-labeled inhibitors of prostate-specific membrane antigen for targeted alpha particle therapy of prostate cancer.

INTRODUCTION: The high potency and short tissue range of α-particles are attractive features for targeted radionuclide therapy, particularly for cancers with micro-metastases. In the current study, we describe the synthesis of a series of 211At-labeled prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) inhibitors and their preliminary evaluation as potential agents for metastatic prostate cancer treatment. METHODS: Four novel Glu-urea based PSMA ligands containing a trialkyl stannyl group were synthesized and labeled with 211At, and for comparative purposes, 131I, via halodestannylation reactions with N-chlorosuccinimide as the oxidant. A PSMA inhibitory assay was performed to evaluate PSMA binding of the unlabeled, iodinated compounds. A series of paired-label biodistribution experiments were performed to compare each 211At-labeled PSMA ligand to its 131I-labeled counterpart in mice bearing subcutaneous PC3 PSMA+ PIP xenografts. RESULTS: Radiochemical yields ranged from 32% to 65% for the 211At-labeled PSMA inhibitors and were consistently lower than those obtained with the corresponding 131I-labeled analogue. Good localization in PC3 PSMA+ PIP but not control xenografts was observed for all labeled molecules studied, which exhibited a variable degree of in vivo dehalogenation as reflected by thyroid and stomach activity levels. Normal tissue uptake and in vivo stability for several of the compounds was markedly improved compared with the previously evaluated compounds, [211At]DCABzL and [*I]DCIBzL. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PATIENT CARE: Compared with the first generation compound [211At]DCABzL, several of the novel 211At-labeled PSMA ligands exhibited markedly improved stability in vivo and higher tumor-to-normal tissue ratios. [211At]GV-620 has the most promising characteristics and warrants further evaluation as a targeted radiotherapeutic for prostate cancer.

An improved and highly selective fluorescence assay for measuring phosphatidylserine decarboxylase activity.

Phosphatidylserine decarboxylases (PSDs) catalyze the conversion of phosphatidylserine (PS) to phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), a critical step in membrane biogenesis and a potential target for development of antimicrobial and anti-cancer drugs. PSD activity has typically been quantified using radioactive substrates and products. Recently, we described a fluorescence-based assay that measures the PSD reaction using distyrylbenzene-bis-aldehyde (DSB-3), whose reaction with PE produces a fluorescence signal. However, DSB-3 is not widely available and also reacts with PSD's substrate, PS, producing an adduct with lower fluorescence yield than that of PE. Here, we report a new fluorescence-based assay that is specific for PSD and in which the presence of PS causes only negligible background. This new assay uses 1,2-diacetyl benzene/ß-mercaptoethanol, which forms a fluorescent iso-indole-mercaptide conjugate with PE. PE detection with this method is very sensitive and comparable with detection by radiochemical methods. Model reactions examining adduct formation with ethanolamine produced stable products of exact masses (m/z) of 342.119 and 264.105. The assay is robust, with a signal/background ratio of 24, and can readily detect formation of 100 pmol of PE produced from Escherichia coli membranes, Candida albicans mitochondria, or HeLa cell mitochondria. PSD activity can easily be quantified by sequential reagent additions in 96- or 384-well plates, making it readily adaptable to high-throughput screening for PSD inhibitors. This new assay now enables straightforward large-scale screening for PSD inhibitors against pathogenic fungi, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and neoplastic mammalian cells.

Labeling Monoclonal Antibody with α-emitting 211At at High Activity Levels via a Tin Precursor.

Background: In a previous clinical study, the authors evaluated the potential of antitenascin C monoclonal antibody (mAb) 81C6 labeled with 211At via the prosthetic agent N-succinimidyl 3-[211At]astatobenzoate (SAB) for the treatment of primary brain tumors. Although encouraging results were obtained, labeling chemistry failed while attempting to escalate the dose to 370 MBq. The goal of the current study was to develop a revised procedure less susceptible to radiolysis-mediated effects on 211At labeling that would be suitable for use at higher activity levels of this α-emitter. Materials and Methods: Addition of N-chlorosuccinimide to the methanol used to remove the 211At from the cryotrap after bismuth target distillation was done to thwart radiolytic decomposition of reactive 211At and the tin precursor. A series of 11 reactions were performed to produce SAB at initial 211At activity levels of 0.31-2.74 GBq from 50 µg of N-succinimidyl 3-trimethylstannylbenzoate (Me-STB), which was then reacted with murine 81C6 mAb without purification of the SAB intermediate. Radiochemical purity, immunoreactive fraction, sterility, and apyrogenicity of the 211At-labeled 81C6 preparations were evaluated. Results: Murine 81C6 mAb was successfully labeled with 211At using these revised procedures with improved radiochemical yields and decreased overall synthesis time compared with the original clinical labeling procedure. Conclusions: With 2.74 GBq of 211At, it was possible to produce 1.0 GBq of 211At-labeled 81C6 with an immunoreactive fraction of 92%. These revised procedures permit production of 211At-labeled mAbs suitable for use at clinically relevant activity levels.

High-throughput screening for phosphatidylserine decarboxylase inhibitors using a distyrylbenzene-bis-aldehyde (DSB-3)-based fluorescence assay.

Phosphatidylserine decarboxylases (PSDs) catalyze the decarboxylation of phosphatidylserine to generate phosphatidylethanolamine, a critical step in phospholipid metabolism in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Most PSDs are membrane-bound, and classical radioisotope-based assays for determining their activity in vitro are not suitable for high-throughput drug screening. The finding that the PkPSD from Plasmodium knowlesi can be purified in a soluble and active form and the recent development of a fluorescence-based distyrylbenzene-bis-aldehyde (DSB-3) assay to measure PSD activity in vitro have laid the groundwork for screening chemical libraries for PSD inhibitors. Using this assay, here we conducted a high-throughput screen of a structurally diverse 130,858-compound library against PkPSD. Further characterization of the hits identified in this screening yielded five PkPSD inhibitors with IC50 values ranging from 3.1 to 42.3 µm Lead compounds were evaluated against the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans in the absence or presence of exogenous ethanolamine, and YU253467 and YU254403 were identified as inhibiting both native C. albicans PSD mitochondrial activity and C. albicans growth, with an MIC50 of 22.5 and 15 µg/ml without ethanolamine and an MIC50 of 75 and 60 µg/ml with ethanolamine, respectively. Together, these results provide the first proof of principle for the application of DSB-3-based fluorescent readouts in high-throughput screening for PSD inhibitors. The data set the stage for future analyses to identify more selective and potent PSD inhibitors with antimicrobial or antitumor activities.

Interaction of two antitumor peptides with membrane lipids - Influence of phosphatidylserine and cholesterol on specificity for melanoma cells.

R-DIM-P-LF11-322 and DIM-LF11-318, derived from the cationic human host defense peptide lactoferricin show antitumor activity against human melanoma. While R-DIM-P-LF11-322 interacts specifically with cancer cells, the non-specific DIM-LF11-318 exhibits as well activity against non-neoplastic cells. Recently we have shown that cancer cells expose the negatively charged lipid phosphatidylserine (PS) in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, while non-cancer cells just expose zwitterionic or neutral lipids, such as phosphatidylcholine (PC) or cholesterol. Calorimetric and zeta potential studies with R-DIM-P-LF11-322 and cancer-mimetic liposomes composed of PS, PC and cholesterol indicate that the cancer-specific peptide interacts specifically with PS. Cholesterol, however, reduces the effectiveness of the peptide. The non-specific DIM-LF11-318 interacts with PC and PS. Cholesterol does not affect its interaction. The dependence of activity of R-DIM-P-LF11-322 on the presence of exposed PS was also confirmed in vitro upon PS depletion of the outer leaflet of cancer cells by the enzyme PS-decarboxylase. Further corresponding to model studies, cholesterol depleted melanoma plasma membranes showed increased sensitivity to R-DIM-P-LF11-322, whereas activity of DIM-LF11-318 was unaffected. Microscopic studies using giant unilamellar vesicles and melanoma cells revealed strong changes in lateral distribution and domain formation of lipids upon addition of both peptides. Whereas R-DIM-P-LF11-322 enters the cancer cell specifically via PS and reaches an intracellular organelle, the Golgi, inducing mitochondrial swelling and apoptosis, DIM-LF11-318 kills rapidly and non-specifically by lysis of the plasma membrane. In conclusion, the specific interaction of R-DIM-P-LF11-322 with PS and sensitivity to cholesterol seem to modulate its specificity for cancer membranes.

Role of phospholipid synthesis in the development and differentiation of malaria parasites in the blood.

The life cycle of malaria parasites in both their mammalian host and mosquito vector consists of multiple developmental stages that ensure proper replication and progeny survival. The transition between these stages is fueled by nutrients scavenged from the host and fed into specialized metabolic pathways of the parasite. One such pathway is used by Plasmodium falciparum, which causes the most severe form of human malaria, to synthesize its major phospholipids, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylserine. Much is known about the enzymes involved in the synthesis of these phospholipids, and recent advances in genetic engineering, single-cell RNA-Seq analyses, and drug screening have provided new perspectives on the importance of some of these enzymes in parasite development and sexual differentiation and have identified targets for the development of new antimalarial drugs. This Minireview focuses on two phospholipid biosynthesis enzymes of P. falciparum that catalyze phosphoethanolamine transmethylation (PfPMT) and phosphatidylserine decarboxylation (PfPSD) during the blood stages of the parasite. We also discuss our current understanding of the biochemical, structural, and biological functions of these enzymes and highlight efforts to use them as antimalarial drug targets.

Preparation of Asymmetric Liposomes Using a Phosphatidylserine Decarboxylase.

Lipid asymmetries between the outer and inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer exist in nearly all biological membranes. Although living cells spend great effort to adjust and maintain these asymmetries, little is known about the biophysical phenomena within asymmetric membranes and their role in cellular function. One reason for this lack of insight into such a fundamental membrane property is the fact that the majority of model-membrane studies have been performed on symmetric membranes. Our aim is to overcome this problem by employing a targeted, enzymatic reaction to prepare asymmetric liposomes with phosphatidylserine (PS) primarily in the inner leaflet. To achieve this goal, we use a recombinant version of a water soluble PS decarboxylase from Plasmodium knowlesi, which selectively decarboxylates PS in the outer leaflet, converting it to phosphatidylethanolamine. The extent of decarboxylation is quantified using high-performance thin-layer chromatography, and the local concentration of anionic PS in the outer leaflet is monitored in terms of the ζ potential. Starting, for example, with 21 mol % 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine sodium salt, the assay leads to liposomes with 21 mol % in the inner and 6 mol % PS in the outer leaflet. This asymmetry persists virtually unchanged for at least 4 days at 20°C and at least 2 days at 40°C. The use of a highly specific enzyme carries the advantage that a minor component such as PS can be adjusted without affecting or being affected by the other lipid species present in the model membrane. The phenomena governing the residual outside PS content are addressed but warrant further study.