Thermal Imaging of the Tongue Surface as a Predictive Method in the Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Over the past 20 years, the high prevalence of diabetes has become a global public health problem. BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to develop a non-invasive screening method for diabetes which will enable the detection of the disease at an early stage. METHODS: This study included 63 adult patients of both sexes: 30 patients with type 2 diabetes (t2DM) and 33 healthy volunteers. The temperature distribution on the tongue's dorsum and apex surface was studied in patients after a mouth-cooling procedure had been introduced. The study used an FLIR T540 thermal imaging camera. An analysis of the correlation between the ∆T values of the tongue dorsum and apex and the glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level was performed. RESULTS: The median of the average dorsum temperature measured 10 min after mouth rinsing was almost 0.8 [°C] lower than for healthy individuals. Also, studies showed a positive average correlation with a Pearson coefficient of r = 0.46 between the HbA1c level and the ∆T of the tongue dorsum. CONCLUSIONS: Tongue temperature measured using the IRT showed a correlation with standard biochemical parameters; it may also differentiate patients and constitute a specific screening method for patients with t2DM.

Thermal Imaging of Tongue Surface as a Prognostic Method in the Diagnosis of General Diseases-Preliminary Study.

The aim of this work was to develop an original method of thermographic measurement of tongue temperature as a prognostic method in the diagnosis of general diseases. This study examined the temperature distribution on the dorsal and apical surfaces of the tongue in patients with various general diseases and introduced a procedure for cooling the oral cavity. Patients with a high risk of systemic infections were referred to the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Outpatient Clinic of the Medical University of Silesia (SUM) in Katowice to identify potential foci of dental infections. They underwent an evaluation of their dentition as well as a prognostic tongue examination using the thermal camera FLIR T540 with a sensitivity of <0.03 K. The obtained results revealed statistically significant differences in the tongue average temperature parameters between the two study groups-healthy patients and patients with disorders. We obtained median temperatures for tongue dorsum (TD) of 35.8 °C and 35.2 °C for healthy patients and patients with disorders, respectively. Also, statistical differences have been obtained for tongue apex (TA) average temperatures. They were 35.5 °C and 34.0 °C for healthy and patients, respectively (p = 0.0001). Similar statistical results presented significant differences in the temperature difference (defined as DT = average temperature 10 min - average temperature 2 min after rinsing of the mouth) of the examined areas of the tongue between the healthy temperature and the unhealthy patient's temperature. It seems that thermal imaging has potential in the prevention and diagnosis of general diseases.

The Influence of Dietary Interventions on Arterial Stiffness in Overweight and Obese Subjects.

Arterial stiffness is often increased in overweight/obese subjects before the development of hypertension. It is also one of the earliest indicators of increased cardiovascular disease risk and can be considered a good predictor of the development of subclinical cardiovascular dysfunction. Arterial stiffness is a significant prognostic factor influencing cardiovascular risk, which dietary habits can modify. Obese patients should use the caloric-restricted diet because it augments aortic distensibility, diminishes pulse wave velocity (PWV), and increases the activity of endothelial nitric oxide synthases. High intake of saturated fatty acids (SFA), trans fats, and cholesterol, typical for the Western diet, impairs endothelial function and raises brachial-ankle PWV. The replacement of SFA with monounsaturated (MUFA) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) derived from seafood and plants diminishes the risk of arterial stiffness. The dairy product intake (excluding butter) decreases PWV in the general population. The high-sucrose diet causes toxic hyperglycemia and increases arterial stiffness. Complex carbohydrates with a low glycemic index (including isomaltose) should be recommended to keep vascular health. The high sodium intake (>10 g/day), particularly associated with low potassium consumption, has a deleterious effect on arterial stiffness (↑ baPWV). Since vegetables and fruits are good sources of vitamins and phytochemicals, they should be recommended in patients with high PWV. Thus, the dietary recommendation to prevent arterial stiffness should be similar to the Mediterranean diet, which is rich in dairy products, plant oils, and fish, with a minimal red meat intake and five servings of fruits and vegetables daily.

The Impact of Whole-Body Cryotherapy on Endothelium Parameters in Patients with Ankylosing Spondylitis.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to assess the effect of whole-body cryotherapy (WBC) with subsequent exercise training (WBC group) or exercise-only training (ET group) on endothelium inflammation parameters in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS). METHODS: The WBC procedure lasted 3 min, and exercise training consisted of one 60 min session a day, which was the same in each group. The ET group was compared to the WBC group. Endothelium (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), soluble P-Selectin, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1), neopterin), and oxidative stress (lipid hydroperoxide (LHP), protein sulfhydryl (PSH), lipofuscin, paraoxonase-1(PON-1), and albumin) parameters were estimated 1 day before and 1 day after the completion of the study. RESULTS: A significant decrease in hsCRP, sP-Selectin, sVCAM-1, and neopterin concentrations was observed in the WBC group after the treatment. After the treatment, in both groups, LHP and lipofuscin levels and PON-1 activity decreased significantly. The observed drop in these parameters was higher in the WBC group compared to the ET group. Albumin concentration increased in the WBC group after treatment. CONCLUSION: Procedures of WBC have a beneficial effect on endothelium parameters in AS patients; therefore, this method can be applied in the treatment of this group of patients.

Comparison of the Thermal Reaction of Patients after Conserving Procedures and after Mastectomy to the Radiation Dose Obtained during Radiotherapy.

The main aim of the study was to compare the temperature response of the body to the dose received during breast cancer radiotherapy. The control group consisted of 50 healthy volunteers. They underwent one thermographic examination and compared the temperatures between the left and right breasts. The research group consisted of 50 patients. Based on the treatment plan, the area PTV and isodose was marked on the thermograms. Five thermographs were performed in each patient (before radiotherapy and in each week of treatment). A qualitatively similar increase in mean temperature during treatment was observed in both subgroups in the analyzed areas. The highest increase in temperature was obtained in the third week of treatment. Compared with the value before treatment, the increase in the mean temperature in PTV in patients after partial surgery was 0.78 °C, these values are statistically significant p = 0.000055. In the case of post-mastectomy patients, 0.8 °C was obtained, these values are statistically significant p = 0.00369. In addition, strong correlation was calculated between isodoses read from treatment plans and isotherms obtained from the analysis of thermal images. In post-mastectomy patients for PTV r = 0.77, 30 Gy r = 0.94, 20 Gy r = 0.96, and 10 Gy r = 0.75. For patients after partial surgery for PTV r = 0.74, 30 Gy r = 0.89, 20 Gy r = 0.83, and 10 Gy r = 0.89. Infrared thermography seems to be a useful method of assessing the thermal response of the body to the dose received during radiotherapy of breast cancer and may be a clinically useful method of assessing the early skin response to radiation.

Determination of Internal Temperature by Measuring the Temperature of the Body Surface Due to Environmental Physical Factors-First Study of Fever Screening in the COVID Pandemic.

The SARS-CoV-2 virus pandemic has shown that the use of a contact thermometer to verify the elevated body temperature of a suspected person carries a risk of spreading disease. The perfect solution seems to be the use of thermal imaging as a diagnostic method in fever evaluation. The aim of the research is to develop an algorithm for thermovision measurements in fever screening standards in the context of the impact of various weather conditions on the temperature of people entering the public institution. Each examined person had two thermal images of the face-AP and lateral projection. Using a T1020 FLIR thermal camera with a resolution of 1024 × 768 pixels; the mean temperature was measured from the area of the forehead, the maximum forehead, the corners of the eyes, the inside of the mouth and the external auditory canal temperature. On the other hand, using classic contact thermometers, the temperature in the armpit and ear was measured. The obtained preliminary results showed very strong and positive correlations between the temperature in the ear measured with an ear thermometer and the maximum, minimum and average forehead temperature. These correlations oscillate at approximately r = 0.6, but the highest value of Spearman coefficient was obtained for the mean temperature of the forehead. Moreover, high correlations were also obtained between the temperature in the ear, measured with an ear thermometer, and the maximum temperature in the corners of the eyes and in the ear, measured with a thermal imaging camera. These values were, respectively, r = 0.54, r = 0.65. In summarizing, remote body temperature measurement taken with a thermal camera can be useful in the assessment of the body's core temperature.

The Use of Infrared Thermography in the Assessment of Thermal Reaction of Patients Treated with Radiotherapy after Breast-Conserving Procedures.

The aim of the study was to assess the usefulness of the infrared thermography method in the assessment of the body's thermal reaction in patients during radiotherapy. Studies have shown how the temperature distribution changes with the dose of radiation used in each treatment week. Fifty-four patients participated in the study. The control group consisted of healthy patients, among whom the difference in mean temperatures between the breasts was checked. The study group included patients after conserving procedures qualified for radiotherapy. Measurements were taken and analyzed for each patient during each week of treatment. The target area (marked by a doctor) and the 30 Gy, 20 Gy and 10 Gy isodoses (generated from the treatment plan) were transferred on thermograms and then analyzed. This way of defining the observed areas is the most accurate and individually adjusted to each treated patient. The analysis showed an increase in temperature in the tested body surface areas, whereas the highest average temperature value was achieved during the third week of treatment. The observations may be used to evaluate the skin reaction from radiation; however, they require further studies and new quantitative parameters.

Arterial Stiffness Assessment by Pulse Wave Velocity in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components: Is It a Useful Tool in Clinical Practice?

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is not a single disease but a cluster of metabolic disorders associated with increased risk for development of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Currently, the definition of MS published in 2009 is widely used, but there are more versions of the diagnostic criteria, making it difficult to conduct scientific discourse in this area. Increased arterial stiffness (AS) can predict the development of cardiovascular disease both in the general population and in patients with MS. Pulse wave velocity (PWV), as a standard method to assess AS, may point out subclinical organ damage in patients with hypertension. The decrease in PWV level during antihypertensive therapy can identify a group of patients with better outcomes independently of their reduction in blood pressure. The adverse effect of metabolic disturbances on arterial function can be offset by an adequate program of exercises, which includes mainly aerobic physical training. Non-insulin-based insulin resistance index can predict AS due to a strong positive correlation with PWV. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of the review of the literature concerning the relationship between MS and its components, and AS assessed by PWV, including clinical usefulness of PWV measurement in patients with MS and its components.

Thermovision as a Tool for Athletes to Verify the Symmetry of Work of Individual Muscle Segments.

In the presented research, we characterised the temperature profiles and the degree of preparation for exercise of individual muscle groups of athletes We hypothesise that by means of thermal imaging studies, the effectiveness of the warm-up can be monitored to determine whether the effort of individual muscles is equal and symmetrical, which can help to avoid a potential injury. In the study, thermographic imaging was performed on a group of athletes exercising on a rowing ergometer involving almost 80% of the muscle parts of the human body for intense and symmetrical exercise. Thermovision studies have confirmed, based on the increased temperature of the muscle areas, that the rowing ergometer involves many muscle groups in training. Moreover, based on the shape of the temperature function obtained from individual body regions of interest, it was shown that conventional exercise on a rowing ergometer causes almost symmetrical work of the right and left sides of the body. Obtained temperature changes in most of the studied muscle areas showed minimum temperature reached the beginning of training-mostly phases 1 and 2. During the subsequent phases, the temperature increase was monitored, stopping at resting temperature. Significantly, temperature variations did not exceed 0.5 °C in all post-training phases. Statistical analyses did not show any significant differences in the symmetry of right and left muscle areas corresponding to the muscle location temperature. Thermal imaging may be an innovative wholly non-invasive and safe method, because checking induces adaptation processes, which may become indicators of an athlete's efficiency. The imaging can be continuously repeated, and automatic comparison of average temperature or temperature difference may provide some clues that protect athletes from overtraining or serious injuries.

Long-Term Skin Temperature Changes after Breast Cancer Radiotherapy.

The aim of the study was to use thermal imaging to evaluate long-term chest temperature changes in patients who had previously been treated with radiotherapy. The examination with a thermal imaging camera involved 144 women-48 of them were patients after RT, 48 were females before breast cancer radiotherapy and the last group of participants were 48 healthy women. All patients (before and after radiotherapy) were divided into women after mastectomy and those after conservative surgery. In addition, the first group of women, those who had received radiotherapy, were divided into three other groups: up to 1 year after RT, over 1 year and up to 5 years after RT and over 5 years after RT. Due to this, it was possible to compare the results and analyse the differences between the temperature in the healthy and treated breasts. The comparison of obtained temperature results showed that the area treated by ionizing radiation is characterized by a higher temperature even a few years after the finished treatment. It is worth mentioning that despite the fact that the difference was visible on the thermograms, the patients had no observable skin lesion or change in color at the treatment site. For the results of the study provided for the group of healthy patients, there were no significant differences observed between the average temperatures in the breasts. The use of thermal imaging in the evaluation of skin temperature changes after radiotherapy showed that the average temperature in the treated breast area can change even a long time after treatment.

The Role of Intermittent Energy Restriction Diet on Metabolic Profile and Weight Loss among Obese Adults.

Obesity is a disease defined by an elevated body mass index (BMI), which is the result of excessive or abnormal accumulation of fat. Dietary intervention is fundamental and essential as the first-line treatment for obese patients, and the main rule of every dietary modification is calorie restriction and consequent weight loss. Intermittent energy restriction (IER) is a special type of diet consisting of intermittent pauses in eating. There are many variations of IER diets such as alternate-day fasting (ADF) and time-restricted feeding (TRF). In the literature, the IER diet is known as an effective method for bodyweight reduction. Furthermore, IER diets have a beneficial effect on systolic or diastolic pressure, lipid profile, and glucose homeostasis. In addition, IER diets are presented as being as efficient as a continuous energy restriction diet (CER) in losing weight and improving metabolic parameters. Thus, the IER diet could present an alternative option for those who cannot accept a constant food regimen.

Twelve-Month Evaluation of Temperature Effects of Radiotherapy in Patients after Mastectomy.

The aim of this study was to verify the changes in the temperature distribution within the breast at twelve months after the end of radiotherapy for breast cancer. The study included twenty-four women. The first test group consisted of twelve women who underwent breast mastectomy and qualified for radiotherapy according to standard medical treatment procedures. The second group included twelve healthy women. The tests were conducted before treatment with radiation therapy and two months, six months, nine months, and one year after the end of treatment. The mean temperature values changed depending on the time that had elapsed since the end of treatment. The highest temperature increase in all patients was observed six months after the end of radiotherapy. This research has confirmed that the assessment of temperature changes in the breast area after radiotherapy can evaluate the severity and lesions in the time course of the radiation reaction.

Physical parameters in thermal imaging of basal cell cancer patients treated with high-dose-rate brachytherapy - first study.

Background: The basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is often treated by surgery or radiotherapy using ionizing radiation. While there is an established diagnostic path before treatment and also for the follow-up there are no good noninvasive methods objectifying irradiated area evolution during treatment. The main goal of preliminary studies was to try to answer if there are any useful information that can be derived from temperature effects of high-dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy in treatment of BCC. Moreover, the temperature gradient was introduced as a physical parameter characterizing the thermal map of the lesion, its surroundings and reference area, which provided information about cancer tissue thermal reaction to brachytherapy. Materials and methods: Thirty-three patients suffering from BCC were monitored with thermovision during the brachytherapy treatment. All lesions were diagnosed as superficial and were confirmed with histopathology examination. Results: Results of the study showed two groups of patients characterized with two thermal maps and temperature gradient describing the lesion and surrounding area of BCC. The first group was characterized by higher temperature of the lesion than the surrounding tissue temperature (mean dT = 0,41°) whereas the other one, with lower lesion temperature (mean dT = -0.42°). It seems that the temperature changes observed in designated areas before and after therapy may provide physicians with additional information which could be useful in planning the treatment process, especially when considering temperature gradient changes during therapy. Conclusions: Although the data obtained indicate the possibilities of temperature distribution in pre-irradiation cases, further research is required for estimation of clinical effects of treatment.

The Use of Thermal Imaging in the Evaluation of Temperature Effects of Radiotherapy in Patients after Mastectomy-First Study.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the temperature parameter of the breast area in patients undergoing radiotherapy at various intervals. The relationship between temperature changes on the patient's skin and the time after the end of radiotherapy was studied. Measurements with a thermal imaging camera were performed in a group of twelve volunteers. Six of them were healthy women who did not have thermal asymmetry between the breasts, whereas six were diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent mastectomy due to the advanced stage of the disease. The patients were qualified for radiation therapy. Thermographic examinations were performed before treatment, two months later and then six months after the end of the treatment. Temperature differences between the healthy breasts and the treated areas were assessed. Additionally, the correlation between a patient's skin temperature changes and the time after the end of radiotherapy was analyzed. The highest skin temperature increase (1.47 °C) was observed 6 months after the end of RT compared to the measurement before treatment. It seems that thermovision may bring a new tool for quantitative analyses of the temperature effects of radiotherapy.

The effect of compression therapy on quality of life in patients with chronic venous disease: a comparative 6-month study.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic venous diseases (CVD), because of its chronic and progressive nature, impairs patients' quality of life (Qol). AIM: To compare the QoL in patients with primary superficial venous insufficiency at different stages before and after compression therapy (CT). MATERIAL AND METHODS: We compared the change in the QoL parameters from baseline to the end of a 6-month compression therapy. 180 subjects were enrolled. They were subdivided into 6 equal subgroups according to CEAP classes. The QoL was assessed using questionnaires, the general SF-36v2 and the disease-specific CIVIQ-20. At the beginning and after the completion of the study intervention, the severity of CVD was assessed in each patient using CEAP and VCSS. The pain intensity was assessed using the numerical rating scale. RESULTS: The CT reduced the severity of CVD, which translated into the increased size of C2 an d C5 subgroups, and reduced size of C3 and C6 subgroups. Another marker of reduced severity of CVD after CT was a significant reduction in VCSS scores in C1, and C3-C6 subgroups. A 6-month CT was associated with a significant QoL improvement in all CEAP class-based subgroups, across all individual and composite domains of SF-36v2, as well as dimensions and GIS of CIVIQ-20. Similarly, there was a significant pain reduction reported in all CEAP class-based subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: Compression therapy using ready-made compression hosiery significantly affects the quality of life in patients with chronic venous disease at all its stages, CEAP classes C1-C6.

Thermal Effects of Topical Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy in Hard-to-Heal Wounds-A Pilot Study.

Clinical studies have been performed to evaluate the thermal response of topical hyperbaric oxygen therapy (THBOT) in patients suffering from hard-to-heal wounds diagnosed as venous leg ulcers located on their lower extremities. It was found that this therapy leads to a temperature decrease in areas around the wound. Moreover, a minor temperature differentiation between all areas was seen in the third period of topical hyperbaric oxygen therapy (THBOT) that may suggest that microcirculation and thermoregulation improvement start the healing process. On the other hand, the results of the conducted studies seem to prove that thermal imaging may provide a safe and effective method of analyzing wound healing of hard-to-heal wounds being treated with THBOT. This is the first study that tries to show the possibilities of a very new method by evaluating treatment of hard-to-heal wounds using thermal imaging, similar to the hyperbaric oxygen therapy effects evaluated by thermal imaging and described previously. However, the first clinical results showed a decrease in temperature due to the THBOT session and some qualitative similarities in the decrease in temperature differentiation between the studied areas and the temperature effects obtained due to hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

Evaluation of Effectiveness of a Toothpaste Containing Tea Tree Oil and Ethanolic Extract of Propolis on the Improvement of Oral Health in Patients Using Removable Partial Dentures.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of toothpaste containing natural tea tree essential oil (TTO) and ethanolic extract of propolis (EEP), on microflora and selected indicators of oral health in patients using removable acrylic partial dentures. Fifty patients with varying conditions of hygiene were divided into two groups. The study group received the toothpaste with TTO and EEP, while the control group received the same toothpaste but without TTO and EEP. At the first visit, oral hygiene and hygiene of the prostheses were carried out. Control visits took place 7 and 28 days later and compared to baseline. Indexes like API (Approximal Plaque Index), mSBI (modified Sulcus Bleeding Index), OHI-s (simplified Oral Hygiene Index), and DPI (Denture Plaque Index) were assessed in three subsequent stages, and swabs were collected from floor of the mouth area to assess the microbiota. After 7 and 28 days of using the toothpaste with TTO and EEP, a statistically significant decrease of the examined indicator values were observed in the study group as compared to the values upon the initial visit. The number of isolated strains of microorganisms in the study group was decreased or maintained at the same level, whereas in the control group an increase in the number of isolated strains was observed. The observed stabilization of oral microbiota in patients from the study group confirms the beneficial activity of toothpaste containing EEP and TTO compared to the control group.

Correlation between Isotherms and Isodoses in Breast Cancer Radiotherapy-First Study.

The study is focused on correlation of isotherms derived from thermal images with an isodoses describing treatment plan for patients with breast cancer treated by radiotherapy. The irradiated area covered the part of the body after mastectomy. The study included patients diagnosed with breast cancer who were qualified for radiotherapy treatment. All patients were monitored during each treatment week during the entire radiotherapy process. The measurements were made under strictly defined conditions. In the treatment planning system (TPS), the specific plan was created for each patient. Spatial dose distribution in the patient's body was obtained and presented by the isodoses (lines connecting points with the same dose values). The following areas from the treatment planning system were plotted on the thermograms: target (tumor area) and isodose: 45 Gy, 40 Gy, 30 Gy, 20 Gy and 10 Gy. The obtained results indicated a high correlation between magnitude of the dose represented as the isodose and the temperature of the treated skin. Moreover, preliminary analysis showed a repeatable increase of the mean temperature in the irradiated area during the treatment.

Whole-Body Cryostimulation Improves Inflammatory Endothelium Parameters and Decreases Oxidative Stress in Healthy Subjects.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to estimate the effect of whole-body cryostimulation (WBC) and subsequent kinesiotherapy on inflammatory endothelium and oxidative stress parameters in healthy subjects. METHODS: The effects of ten WBC procedures lasting 3 min per day and followed by a 60-min session of kinesiotherapy on oxidative stress and inflammatory endothelium parameters in healthy subjects (WBC group n = 32) were analyzed. The WBC group was compared to a kinesiotherapy only (KT; n = 16) group. The following parameters were estimated one day before the start, and one day after the completion of the studies: oxidative stress parameters (the total antioxidant capacity of plasma (FRAP), paraoxonase-1 activity (PON-1), and total oxidative status (TOS)) and inflammatory endothelium parameters (myeloperoxidase activity (MPO), serum amyloid A (SAA), and sCD40L levels). RESULTS: A significant decrease of PON-1 and MPO activities and TOS, SAA, and sCD40L levels as well as a significant FRAP increase were observed in the WBC group after the treatment. In addition, the SAA levels and PON-1 activity decreased significantly after the treatment in both groups, but the observed decrease of these parameters in the WBC group was higher in comparison to the KT group. CONCLUSION: WBC procedures have a beneficial impact on inflammatory endothelium and oxidative stress parameters in healthy subjects, therefore they may be used as a wellness method.

Usefulness in Developing an Optimal Training Program and Distinguishing between Performance Levels of the Athlete's Body by Using of Thermal Imaging.

The goal of the training is to enable the body to perform prolonged physical effort without reducing its effectiveness while maintaining the body's homeostasis. Homeostasis is the ability of the system to maintain, in dynamic balance, the stability of the internal environment. Equally as important as monitoring the body's thermoregulation phenomena during exercise seems to be the evaluation of these mechanisms after physical effort, when the athlete's body returns to physiological homeostasis. Restoring homeostasis is an important factor in body regeneration and has a significant impact on preventing overtraining. In this work we present a training protocol using a rowing ergometer, which was planned to be carried out in a short time and which involves working the majority of the athlete's muscles, allowing a full assessment of the body's thermal parameters after stopping exercise and during the body's return to thermal equilibrium and homeostasis. The significant differences between normalized mean body surface temperature obtained for the cyclist before the training period and strength group as well as before and 10 min after training were obtained. Such observation seems to bring indirectly some information about the sportsperson's efficiency due to differences in body temperature in the first 10 min of training when sweat does not play a main role in surface temperature. Nearly 1 °C drop of mean body temperature has been measured due to the period of training. It is concluded that thermovision not only allows you to monitor changes in body temperature due to sports activity, but also allows you to determine which of the athletes has a high level of body efficiency. The average maximum body temperature of such an athlete is higher (32.5 °C) than that of an athlete who has not trained regularly (30.9 °C) and whose body probably requires further training.