Continuous epidural infusion versus programmed intermittent epidural bolus for labor analgesia: optimal configuration of parameters to reduce physician-administered top-ups.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Programmed intermittent epidural bolus (PIEB) is a delivery mode associated with decreased local analgesia dosing, motor block, and physician-administered top-ups (PATUs) during labor analgesia. We hypothesized that PIEB delivery at different settings will result in fewer PATUs for labor analgesia than the same hourly volume of a continuous epidural infusion (CEI). METHODS: "Before and after" study design of combined spinal-epidural (CSE) for labor, with bupivacaine 0.0625%-fentanyl 2 mcg/ml and patient-controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA; 5 ml bolus with 10 min lock-out). The "before" group (N = 120) received a CEI at 10 ml/hour. PIEB groups received a programmed bolus of 10 ml: every 60 min (PIEB60, N = 120), every 45 min (PIEB45, N = 140), or every 45 min with high flow (500 ml/hour) (PIEB45HF, N = 25). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of women requesting a PATU, time intervals from CSE to PATU and to delivery, and obstetric outcomes. RESULTS: There was no difference in the proportion of women requesting PATUs between the CEI and PIEB60 groups (45/120 versus 52/120, respectively; p > .05). The PATU rate was lower in the PIEB45 group compared with the PIEB60 and CEI groups (23/140 versus 52/120 and 45/120, p < .005 and p < .05, respectively), and in the PIEB45HF versus PIEB60 groups (5/25 versus 52/120, p < .05). No difference in other outcomes was observed. CONCLUSIONS: The number of women requesting a PATU was lowest with the PIEB45 and PIEB45HF settings. There were no differences in any other outcomes between groups. This study emphasizes the many variations in programming that need to be further tested to establish the benefits of PIEB delivery compared with traditional CEI with PCEA.

Hormonal and Clinical Predictors for Post-egg Retrieval Pain in Women Undergoing Assisted Reproductive Technology Procedures.

OBJECTIVES: The intensity of post-egg retrieval pain is underestimated, with few studies examining postprocedural pain and predictors to identify women at risk for severe pain. We evaluated the influence of preprocedural hormonal levels, ovarian factors, and mechanical temporal summation (mTS) as predictors for post-egg retrieval pain in women undergoing in vitro fertilization. METHODS: Eighteen women scheduled for ultrasound-guided egg retrieval under standardized anesthesia and postprocedural analgesia were enrolled. Preprocedural mTS, questionnaires, clinical data related to anesthesia and the procedure itself, postprocedural pain scores, and pain medication for breakthrough pain were recorded. Statistical analysis included Pearson product-moment correlations, Mann-Whitney U tests, and multiple linear regressions. RESULTS: Average peak post-egg retrieval pain during the first 24 hours was 5.0±1.6 on a numerical response scale (0=no pain, 10=worst pain imaginable). Peak post-egg retrieval pain was correlated with basal antimullerian hormone (AMH) (r=0.549, P=0.018), preprocedural peak estradiol (r=0.582, P=0.011), total number of follicles (r=0.517, P=0.028), and number of retrieved eggs (r=0.510, P=0.031). Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (n=4) was associated with higher basal AMH (P=0.004), higher peak pain scores (P=0.049), but not with peak estradiol (P=0.13). The mTS did not correlate with peak postprocedural pain (r=0.266, P=0.286), or peak estradiol level (r=0.090, P=0.899). DISCUSSION: Peak post-egg retrieval pain intensity was higher than anticipated. Our results suggest that post-egg retrieval pain can be predicted by baseline AMH, high peak estradiol, and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Further studies to evaluate intraprocedural and postprocedural pain in this population are needed, as well as clinical trials to assess postprocedural analgesia in women presenting with high hormonal levels.

Intraoperative Treatment of Fetal Asystole After Endovascular Repair of Aortic Coarctation in a Pregnant Woman with Mitral Stenosis.

A G1P0 woman with aortic coarctation and mitral valve stenosis underwent endovascular aortic repair with continuous fetal monitoring during the 20th week of pregnancy. On tracheal extubation, an episode of fetal asystole followed by fetal bradycardia was identified. Ephedrine, nitroglycerin, and terbutaline were administered for intrauterine fetal resuscitation. Subsequently, the patient developed hypertension and pulmonary edema, which were treated with furosemide and noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. The fetal heart rate normalized. We conclude that intraoperative monitoring of a previable fetus may aid in optimizing maternal hemodynamics. Before performing interventional procedures in pregnant women, a multidisciplinary team should discuss the goals of neonatal care should adverse fetal events be detected.

Spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery in a woman with neuromyelitis optica.

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO), or Devic's disease, is an idiopathic severe demyelinating disease that preferentially affects the optic nerve and spinal cord. Neuraxial anesthesia in women with multiple sclerosis is widely accepted, but reports of the use of neuraxial anesthesia in patients with NMO are scarce. We report the case of a morbidly obese primigravida undergoing a planned cesarean delivery at 32 weeks' gestation due to an acute exacerbation of NMO, managed with spinal anesthesia. Other than increased intraoperative hyperalgesia requiring inhaled nitrous oxide/oxygen, the mother experienced no apparent anesthetic-related complications.

Alternative splicing and tissue-specific elastin misassembly act as biological modifiers of human elastin gene frameshift mutations associated with dominant cutis laxa.

Elastin is the extracellular matrix protein in vertebrates that provides elastic recoil to blood vessels, the lung, and skin. Because the elastin gene has undergone significant changes in the primate lineage, modeling elastin diseases in non-human animals can be problematic. To investigate the pathophysiology underlying a class of elastin gene mutations leading to autosomal dominant cutis laxa, we engineered a cutis laxa mutation (single base deletion) into the human elastin gene contained in a bacterial artificial chromosome. When expressed as a transgene in mice, mutant elastin was incorporated into elastic fibers in the skin and lung with adverse effects on tissue function. In contrast, only low levels of mutant protein incorporated into aortic elastin, which explains why the vasculature is relatively unaffected in this disease. RNA stability studies found that alternative exon splicing acts as a modifier of disease severity by influencing the spectrum of mutant transcripts that survive nonsense-mediated decay. Our results confirm the critical role of the C-terminal region of tropoelastin in elastic fiber assembly and suggest tissue-specific differences in the elastin assembly pathway.

Genetic modifiers of cardiovascular phenotype caused by elastin haploinsufficiency act by extrinsic noncomplementation.

Elastin haploinsufficiency causes the cardiovascular complications associated with Williams-Beuren syndrome and isolated supravalvular aortic stenosis. Significant variability exists in the vascular pathology in these individuals. Using the Eln(+/-) mouse, we sought to identify the source of this variability. Following outcrossing of C57Bl/6J Eln(+/-), two backgrounds were identified whose cardiovascular parameters deviated significantly from the parental strain. F1 progeny of the C57Bl/6J; Eln(+/-)x129X1/SvJ were more hypertensive and their arteries less compliant. In contrast, Eln(+/-) animals crossed to DBA/2J were protected from the pathologic changes associated with elastin insufficiency. Among the crosses, aortic elastin and collagen content did not correlate with quantitative vasculopathy traits. Quantitative trait locus analysis performed on F2 C57; Eln(+/-)x129 intercrosses identified highly significant peaks on chromosome 1 (LOD 9.7) for systolic blood pressure and on chromosome 9 (LOD 8.7) for aortic diameter. Additional peaks were identified that affect only Eln(+/-), including a region upstream of Eln on chromosome 5 (LOD 4.5). Bioinformatic analysis of the quantitative trait locus peaks revealed several interesting candidates, including Ren1, Ncf1, and Nos1; genes whose functions are unrelated to elastic fiber assembly, but whose effects may synergize with elastin insufficiency to predispose to hypertension and stiffer blood vessels. Real time RT-PCR studies show background-specific increased expression of Ncf1 (a subunit of the NOX2 NAPDH oxidase) that parallel the presence of increased oxidative stress in Eln(+/-) aortas. This finding raises the possibility that polymorphisms in genes affecting the generation of reactive oxygen species alter cardiovascular function in individuals with elastin haploinsufficiency through extrinsic noncomplementation.

Evidence for heterozygous abnormalities of the elastin gene (ELN) affecting the quantity of vocal fold elastic fibers: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effects of a heterozygous elastin gene (Eln) abnormality (deletion of one Eln allele) on the structural characteristics of the vocal fold lamina propria using a mouse model of human disease. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional between-subjects design. METHODS: Five mice, four with heterozygous Eln deletions (Eln +/-) serving as an animal model for the human disease supravalvular aortic stenosis and one normal wild-type control (Eln +/+) were used for this study. Vocal folds were obtained from each animal and stained for the protein elastin using histochemical methods. Descriptive data from qualitative visual inspection and quantitative data from microscopic digital image analysis were collected to determine the staining density of elastic fibers within the vocal fold lamina propria. RESULTS: Qualitative visual inspection revealed greater staining density (eg, a greater quantity) for elastic fibers in the Eln +/+ animal. Quantitative measurements using digital pixel analysis of staining density revealed significant differences between mice with the two genotypes, confirming the qualitative findings. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that Eln requires two functioning alleles for normal structural development of the vocal fold lamina propria. This pilot evidence supports the hypothesis of a structural etiology causing altered vocal function in humans with a similar genotype.

The importance of elastin to aortic development in mice.

Elastin is an essential component of vertebrate arteries that provides elasticity and stores energy during the cardiac cycle. Elastin production in the arterial wall begins midgestation but increases rapidly during the last third of human and mouse development, just as blood pressure and cardiac output increase sharply. The aim of this study is to characterize the structure, hemodynamics, and mechanics of developing arteries with reduced elastin levels and determine the critical time period where elastin is required in the vertebrate cardiovascular system. Mice that lack elastin (Eln(-/-)) or have approximately one-half the normal level (Eln(+/-)) show relatively normal cardiovascular development up to embryonic day (E) 18 as assessed by arterial morphology, left ventricular blood pressure, and cardiac function. Previous work showed that just a few days later, at birth, Eln(-/-) mice die with high blood pressure and tortuous, stenotic arteries. During this period from E18 to birth, Eln(+/-) mice add extra layers of smooth muscle cells to the vessel wall and have a mean blood pressure 25% higher than wild-type animals. These findings demonstrate that elastin is only necessary for normal cardiovascular structure and function in mice starting in the last few days of fetal development. The large increases in blood pressure during this period may push hemodynamic forces over a critical threshold where elastin becomes required for cardiovascular function. Understanding the interplay between elastin amounts and hemodynamic forces in developing vessels will help design treatments for human elastinopathies and optimize protocols for tissue engineering.

Modification and functional inactivation of the tropoelastin carboxy-terminal domain in cross-linked elastin.

The carboxy-terminus of tropoelastin is a highly conserved, atypical region of the molecule with sequences that define both cell and matrix interactions. This domain also plays a critical but unknown role in the assembly and crosslinking of tropoelastin during elastic fiber maturation. Using a competitive ELISA with an antibody to an elastase-resistant epitope in the carboxy-terminus of tropoelastin (domain-36), we quantified levels of the domain-36 sequence in elastase-derived peptides from mature, insoluble elastin. We found that the amount of carboxy-terminal epitope in elastin is approximately 0.2% of the expected value, assuming each tropoelastin monomer that is incorporated into the insoluble polymer has an intact carboxy-terminus. The low levels suggest that the majority of domain-36 sequence is either removed at some stage of elastin assembly or that the antigenic epitope is altered by posttranslational modification. Biochemical evidence is presented for a potential lysine-derived cross-link in this region, which would alter the extractability and antigenicity of the carboxy-terminal epitope. These results show that there is little or no unmodified domain-36 in mature elastin, indicating that the cell and matrix binding activities associated with this region of tropoelastin are lost or modified as elastin matures. A crosslinking function for domain-36 may serve to help register the multiple crosslinking sites in elastin and explains why mutations that alter the domain-36 sequence have detrimental effects on elastic fiber assembly.

Functional rescue of elastin insufficiency in mice by the human elastin gene: implications for mouse models of human disease.

Diseases linked to the elastin gene arise from loss-of-function mutations leading to protein insufficiency (supravalvular aortic stenosis) or from missense mutations that alter the properties of the elastin protein (dominant cutis laxa). Modeling these diseases in mice is problematic because of structural differences between the human and mouse genes. To address this problem, we developed a humanized elastin mouse with elastin production being controlled by the human elastin gene in a bacterial artificial chromosome. The temporal and spatial expression pattern of the human transgene mirrors the endogenous murine gene, and the human gene accurately recapitulates the alternative-splicing pattern found in humans. Human elastin protein interacts with mouse elastin to form functional elastic fibers and when expressed in the elastin haploinsufficient background reverses the hypertension and cardiovascular changes associated with that phenotype. Elastin from the human transgene also rescues the perinatal lethality associated with the null phenotype. The results of this study confirm that reestablishing normal elastin levels is a logical objective for treating diseases of elastin insufficiency such as supravalvular aortic stenosis. This study also illustrates how differences in gene structure and alternative splicing present unique problems for modeling human diseases in mice.

Deposition of tropoelastin into the extracellular matrix requires a competent elastic fiber scaffold but not live cells.

The initial steps of elastic fiber assembly were investigated using an in vitro assembly model in which purified recombinant tropoelastin (rbTE) was added to cultures of live or dead cells. The ability of tropoelastin to associate with preexisting elastic fibers or microfibrils in the extracellular matrix was then assessed by immunofluorescence microscopy using species-specific tropoelastin antibodies. Results show that rbTE can associate with elastic fiber components in the absence of live cells through a process that does not depend on crosslink formation. Time course studies show a transformation of the deposited protein from an initial globular appearance early in culture to a more fibrous structure as the matrix matures. Deposition required the C-terminal region of tropoelastin and correlated with the presence of preexisting elastic fibers or microfibrils. Association of exogenously added tropoelastin to the cellular extracellular matrix was inhibited by the addition of heparan sulfate but not chondroitin sulfate sugars. Together, these results suggest that the matrix elaborated by the cell is sufficient for the initial deposition of tropoelastin in the extracellular space and that elastin assembly may be influenced by the composition of sulfated proteoglycans in the matrix.

Epinephrine is not a useful addition to intrathecal fentanyl or fentanyl-bupivacaine for labor analgesia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Intrathecal fentanyl provides effective labor analgesia for a limited time with frequent side effects. We evaluated the effects of adding epinephrine to intrathecal fentanyl with and without bupivacaine. METHODS: Eighty healthy, term, nulliparous parturients with cervical dilation of 5 cm or less received combined spinal-epidural (CSE) analgesia. Subjects were randomized in a double-blind fashion to 1 of 4 intrathecal solutions containing fentanyl 35 microg with either saline (F); bupivacaine 2.5 mg + saline (FB); bupivacaine 2.5 mg + epinephrine 100 microg (FBE); or epinephrine 100 microg + saline (FE). Patients were evaluated for visual analog pain score, duration of spinal analgesia (time until patient request for additional analgesia), nausea/vomiting, pruritus, sensory and motor block, maternal blood pressure, and fetal heart rate (FHR). RESULTS: Intrathecal bupivacaine significantly prolonged fentanyl analgesia with or without epinephrine (P =.018), but epinephrine did not significantly prolong the duration of fentanyl alone or with bupivacaine (F, 92 +/- 39 minutes; FB, 125 +/- 31 minutes; FBE, 134 +/- 42 minutes; and FE, 117 +/- 48 minutes). Intrathecal epinephrine was associated with a higher incidence of severe nausea (P =.001), and the FBE group had more lower extremity weakness (P =.047). There was no difference in the incidence of severe pruritus, FHR deceleration, or delivery outcome between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that intrathecal epinephrine does not prolong the duration of fentanyl or fentanyl with bupivacaine for labor analgesia in nulliparous parturients. Additionally, intrathecal epinephrine did not decrease the incidence of side effects and therefore cannot be recommended.