Model compounds for evaluating the reactivity of amphetamine-type stimulants.

The use of controlled precursors for reaction optimisation is not always practical. One approach to limiting the use of controlled substances is to instead use 'model compounds'. Herein, two model compounds resembling norephedrine and ephedrine were selected based on their (i) structural similarity (i.e., presence of key functional groups) and (ii) availability from multiple suppliers without restriction. Model compounds 2-amino-1-phenylethanol and 2-(methylamino)-1-phenylethanol (halostachine), were compared to norephedrine and pseudoephedrine by firstly subjecting them to transformations known in the synthesis of amphetamines, and secondly, comparing the compounds using colourimetric spot tests, FTIR and NMR.

Recovery of DNA from acetaminophen exploring physical state and sampling methods.

Research into the recovery of DNA from illicit drug samples has shown it is possible to get forensically useful profiles from such substrates. However, it is not yet known if the different physical states that drugs can be found in influences the quantity and quality of DNA that can be recovered or what is the best sampling method to adopt for powdered samples. This research used acetaminophen in four different states - large crystalline, powder, in solution, or residue - to determine the efficacy of current DNA technology in recovery and analysis of the resulting sample. Five replicates of each were prepared. Human blood was deposited on or mixed with the drug and left for 1 hour. The surface of the drug was sampled by wet/dry swabbing (where appropriate), or the entire sample was deposited in a tube, and the DNA then extracted using DNA-IQ™. The amount of DNA recovered (ng), degradation index, number of PCR cycles (Ct) required for the IPC to reach threshold, number of alleles in the DNA profile and average peak height (APH) were assessed. All samples, irrespective of the physical state they were collected from, returned full DNA profiles that corresponded to the DNA profile of the blood donor, with no degradation or inhibition detected. It was also found the wet/dry swabbing method returned higher levels of DNA than inclusion of the entire sample into the tube for powdered acetaminophen and the appropriate method to use will be dependent on casework circumstances. The findings of this research further develops our understanding of the recovery of DNA from drugs, and supports the need for further investigation to understand under what conditions DNA can be recovered from illicit substances.

The impact of substrate characteristics on the collection and persistence of biological materials, and their implications for forensic casework.

This study assessed the level of nucleic acid persistence on the substrate pre-, and post-swabbing, in order to assess whether biological materials (touch, saliva, semen, and blood) are collected differently depending on the substrate characteristics. A total of 48 samples per deposit and substrate variety (n = 384) were assessed by tracking the persistence of nucleic acid using Diamond™ Nucleic Acid Dye (DD) staining and Polilight photography. The number of DD nucleic acid fluorescent complexes formed post-staining were counted (fluorescent count) and in conjunction with the fluorescence signal intensity (DD nucleic acid complex accumulation) used to estimate the level of nucleic acid persistence on substrates. Touch deposits have shown to be the most persistent deposit with strong adhesion capabilities on both substrate verities. Saliva displayed a higher persistence than semen and/or blood. Semen displayed a high collection efficiency as well as a high fluorescence signal intensity. Blood displayed a low persistence on both substrates with a superior collection efficiency that may also indicate a higher probability to become dislodged from surfaces given a particular activity. Our research has shown that the persistence and recovery of biological deposits is not only measurable but more importantly, may have the potential to be estimated, as such, may build an understanding that can provide valuable guidance for collection efficiency evaluations, and the assessing of the probability of particular profiles, given alternate propositions of means of transfer occurring.

The effect of the anti-coagulant EDTA on the deposition and adhesion of whole blood deposits on non-porous substrates.

An investigation into whether the addition of a commonly used anti-coagulant agent like ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) has an impact on the adhesion potential of blood to non-porous substrates was conducted. Two non-porous substrates (aluminum and polypropylene) exhibiting six different surface roughness categories (R1-R6) were used as test substrates upon which either whole blood or blood treated with EDTA was deposited. Samples were exposed to different drying periods (24 hours, 48 hours, and 1 week) before undergoing a tapping agitation experiment in order to evaluate the adhesion to the surface. Clear differences in adhesion potential were observed between whole blood and blood treated with EDTA. Blood treated with EDTA displayed a stronger adhesion strength to aluminum after a drying time of 24 h pre-agitation, while whole blood presented with a stronger adhesion strength at the drying time of 48 h and 1 week. Both EDTA-treated and EDTA-untreated blood was shown to dislodge less easily on polypropylene with the only difference observed on smooth surfaces (0.51-1.50 µm surface roughness). Thus, when conducting transfer studies using smooth hydrophobic substrates like polypropylene or considering the likelihood of transfer given specific case scenarios, differences in adhesion strength of blood due to hydrophobic substrate characteristics and a decreased surface area need to be considered. Overall, whole blood displayed a better adhesion strength to aluminum, emphasizing that indirect transfer probability experiments using EDTA blood on substrates like aluminum should take an increased dislodgment tendency into account in their transfer estimations.

How the physicochemical substrate properties can influence the deposition of blood and seminal deposits.

A comprehensive investigation into the impact of the physical and chemical variables of a substrate on the deposition was conducted to aid in the estimation of the subsequent transfer probabilities of blood and semen. The study focussed on surface roughness, topography, surface free energy (SFE), wettability, and the capacity for protein adsorption. Conjointly, evaluations of the physical and chemical characteristics of blood and seminal deposits were conducted, to assess the fluid dynamics of these non-Newtonian fluids and their adhesion potential to aluminium and polypropylene. A linear range of surface roughness parameters (0.5 - 3.5 µm) were assessed for their impact on the deposit deposition spread and adhesion height, to gather insight into the change in fluid dynamics of non-Newtonian fluids. Blood has shown to produce a uniform adhesion coverage on aluminium across all roughness categories while blood deposited on polypropylene exhibited a strong hydrophobic response from a surface roughness of 2.0 µm and beyond. Interestingly, the deposition height of blood resulted in near identical values, whether deposited onto the hydrophobic polypropylene or the hydrophilic aluminium substrate, illustrating the potential influence of a heightened fibrinogen adsorption effect. Semen deposited on aluminium resulted in concentrated localised deposition regions after reaching a surface roughness of 2.0 µm, highlighting the development of crystal formations afforded by the sodium ion concentration in the seminal fluid. The semen deposited on polypropylene conformed to the substrate contours producing a deposition film that was smoother than the substrate itself, underlining the effects of thixotropic fluid dynamics. Variables identified here establish the complexity observed for non-Newtonian fluids, and the effect protein adsorption may have on the deposition behaviour of blood and seminal deposits and inform questions in relation to the adhesion strength of said deposits and their ability to dislodge (becoming detached upon the application of an external force) from the substrate surface during a potential transfer event.

Boosting Plant Photosynthesis with Carbon Dots: A Critical Review of Performance and Prospects.

Artificially augmented photosynthesis in nano-bionic plants requires tunable nano-antenna structures with physiochemical and optoelectronic properties, as well as unique light conversion capabilities. The use of nanomaterials to promote light capture across photosystems, primarily by carbon dots, has shown promising results in enhancing photosynthesis through tunable uptake, translocation, and biocompatibility. Carbon dots possess the ability to perform both down and up-light conversions, making them effective light promoters for harnessing solar energy beyond visible light wavelengths.This review presents and discusses the recent progress in fabrication, chemistry, and morphology, as well as other properties such as photoluminescence and energy conversion efficiency of nano-antennas based on carbon dots. The performance of artificially boosted photosynthesis is discussed and then correlated with the conversion properties of carbon dots and how they are applied to plant models. The challenges related to the nanomaterial delivery and the performance evaluation practices in modified photosystems, consideration of the reliability of this approach, and the potential avenues for performance improvements through other types of nano-antennas based on alternative nanomaterials are also critically evaluated. It is anticipated that this review will stimulate more high-quality research in plant nano-bionics and provide avenues to enhance photosynthesis for future agricultural applications.

How changes to the substrate's physical characteristics can influence the deposition of touch and salivary deposits.

An in-depth study into the physical substrate characteristics such as substrate surface roughness, topography, and physicochemical characteristics like wettability and surface free energy (SFE) was conducted to investigate the impact on the deposition and adherence of touch and salivary deposits on aluminium and polypropylene. A robust protocol was established to generate a set of substrates with a controlled linear surface roughness range (0.5-3.5 µm) in order to identify the impact of surface roughness on DNA transfer, persistence, prevalence, and recovery (DNA-TPPR). The polypropylene substrate was shown to produce fibres when artificially roughened, becoming more prominent at a higher surface roughness range, and has shown to have a direct impact on the distribution of salivary and touch deposits. At the low to moderate surface roughness range 0.5-2.0 µm, salivary and touch deposits have generally shown to follow the topographical features of the substrate they were deposited on, before a plateau of the surface roughness measure on the deposit was observed, indicating that a saturation point was reached and the grooves in the substrate were beginning to fill. Touch deposits have shown to maintain a consistent deposition height pre-surface roughness threshold, irrespective of substrate surface roughness while the deposition height of salivary deposits was heavily influenced by substrate surface roughness and topography. The substrate SFE, wettability, hydrophobicity, and the surface tension of the deposit was shown to drive the adhesion properties of the saliva and touch deposits on the respective substrates, and it was observed that this may be of importance for the improvement of the current DNA-TPPR understanding, DNA sampling protocols, and DNA transfer considerations within casework.

Preliminary investigation into isolation and extraction of DNA recovered from drug residues.

It is a commonly held belief that drug residues may affect the integrity of DNA and/or interfere with DNA analysis, and therefore DNA on drug paraphernalia and the associated drugs may be overlooked as a source of evidence. This study investigated whether DNA could be isolated from a drug residue-bearing surface to ascertain whether a forensically useful DNA profile could be obtained. Human blood and pre-extracted "naked" DNA were deposited on samples of acetaminophen, codeine, morphine, oxycodone, ketamine, and synthetic cannabinoids and left for an hour before DNA extraction using DNA-IQ™. To investigate DNA integrity, the absolute amount of DNA recovered, degradation index, and number of PCR cycles required for the IPC to reach threshold (Ct), number of reportable alleles and average peak height (APH) in the DNA profile, were examined. The samples were also qualitatively analysed using LC:MS to determine if any residual drugs were present in the samples post-DNA extraction. Overall, the drugs had no to minimal degradation or inhibitory effects on the DNA with sufficient DNA recovered to generate a partial or full DNA profile in 80% of naked DNA samples and 100 % of blood samples. The amount of DNA collected was sufficient for further analysis in 86% of naked DNA samples, and 100% of blood samples, with all median APH values being over the 175 RFU standard. Chemical analysis showed that traces of the drug were still present in the samples after DNA extraction was performed. Therefore, this study demonstrates forensically useful DNA can be recovered from surfaces bearing drug residues, even when sampling directly from the samples of drugs.

Recent advances in research for potential utilization of unexplored lichen metabolites.

Several research studies have shown that lichens are productive organisms for the synthesis of a broad range of secondary metabolites. Lichens are a self-sustainable stable microbial ecosystem comprising an exhabitant fungal partner (mycobiont) and at least one or more photosynthetic partners (photobiont). The successful symbiosis is responsible for their persistence throughout time and allows all the partners (holobionts) to thrive in many extreme habitats, where without the synergistic relationship they would be rare or non-existent. The ability to survive in harsh conditions can be directly correlated with the production of some unique metabolites. Despite the potential applications, these unique metabolites have been underutilised by pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries due to their slow growth, low biomass availability and technical challenges involved in their artificial cultivation. However, recent development of biotechnological tools such as molecular phylogenetics, modern tissue culture techniques, metabolomics and molecular engineering are opening up a new opportunity to exploit these compounds within the lichen holobiome for industrial applications. This review also highlights the recent advances in culturing the symbionts and the computational and molecular genetics approaches of lichen gene regulation recognized for the enhanced production of target metabolites. The recent development of multi-omics novel biodiscovery strategies aided by synthetic biology in order to study the heterologous expressed lichen-derived biosynthetic gene clusters in a cultivatable host offers a promising means for a sustainable supply of specialized metabolites.

An O-Specific Polysaccharide/Tetanus Toxoid Conjugate Vaccine Induces Protection in Guinea Pigs against Virulent Challenge with Coxiella burnetii.

Q fever is caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii and is spread to humans from infected animals especially goats, sheep and cattle, predominantly when giving birth. There is an effective human vaccine (Q-VAX) against Q fever, and although Q fever is a worldwide problem, the vaccine is only used in Australia due to difficulties associated with its use and the risk of adverse reactions. The desire to protect humans, particularly farmers and abattoir workers, from Q fever prompted the development of a new safe and effective human vaccine without all the difficulties associated with the current vaccine. Candidate vaccines were prepared using purified O-specific polysaccharide (OSP) extracted from the lipopolysaccharide of virulent (phase 1) C. burnetii, strain Nine Mile, which was then conjugated to a tetanus toxoid (TT) carrier protein. Two vaccines were prepared using OSP from C. burnetii grown in embryonated eggs (vaccine A) and axenic media (vaccine B). Vaccines with or without alum adjuvant were used to vaccinate guinea pigs, which were later challenged by intranasal inoculation with virulent C. burnetii. Both vaccines protected guinea pigs from fever and loss of weight post challenge. Post-mortem samples of the spleen, liver and kidney of vaccinated guinea pigs contained substantially less C. burnetii DNA as measured by PCR than those of the unvaccinated control animals. This study demonstrated that a C. burnetii OSP-TT conjugate vaccine is capable of inducing protection against virulent C. burnetii in guinea pigs. Additionally, OSP derived from C. burnetii grown in axenic media compared to OSP from embryonated eggs is equivalent in terms of providing a protective immune response.

The use of microfluidic devices in studies of differential sperm chemotaxis.

Differential sperm chemotaxis describes differences among male-female pairings in chemotactic responses of sperm to egg (or female)-derived chemical attractants. Microfluidic devices provide powerful platforms in which to study this complex gamete interaction. Here, we describe key challenges and potential solutions in applying this state-of-the-art technique to differential sperm chemotaxis.

Atomically-thin Schottky-like photo-electrocatalytic cross-flow membrane reactors for ultrafast remediation of persistent organic pollutants.

The remediation of persistent organic pollutants in surface and ground water represents a major environmental challenge worldwide. Conventional physico-chemical techniques do not efficiently remove such persistent organic pollutants and new remediation techniques are therefore required. Photo-electro catalytic membranes represent an emerging solution that can combine photocatalytic and electrocatalytic degradation of contaminants along with molecular sieving. Herein, macro-porous photo-electro catalytic membranes were prepared using conductive and porous stainless steel metal membranes decorated with nano coatings of semiconductor photocatalytic metal oxides (TiO2 and ZnO) via atomic layer deposition, producing highly conformal and stable coatings. The metal - semiconductor junction between the stainless steel membranes and photocatalysts provides Schottky - like characteristics to the coated membranes. The PEC membranes showed induced hydrophilicity from the nano-coatings and enhanced electro-chemical properties due to the Schottky junction. A high electron transfer rate was also induced in the coated membranes as the photocurrent efficiency increased by 4 times. The photo-electrocatalytic efficiency of the TiO2 and ZnO coated membranes were demonstrated in batch and cross flow filtration reactors for the degradation of persistent organic pollutant solution, offering increased degradation kinetic factors by 2.9 and 2.3 compared to photocatalysis and electrocatalysis, respectively. The recombination of photo-induced electron and hole pairs is mitigated during the photo-electrocatalytic process, resulting in an enhanced catalytic performance. The strategy offers outstanding perspectives to design stimuli-responsive membrane materials able to sieve and degrade simultaneously toxic contaminants towards greater process integration and self-cleaning operations.

Evaluation of the anticancer potential of secondary metabolites from Pseudevernia furfuracea based on epidermal growth factor receptor inhibition.

UHPLC/ESI/MS/MS profiling followed by bioactivity guided isolation of Pseudevernia furfuracea (P. furfuracea) extract yielded two polyphenolic molecules, Methyl haematommate (PF-1) and Atraric acid (PF-2). These molecules were evaluated for bioactivity against five cancerous cell lines. The results revealed that atraric acid showed significant activity against ovarian cancer cell line (PA-1) having GI50 at 16.42 µg/mL and moderate activity against the breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), having GI50 at 64.35 µg/mL. The results were further supported by in silico molecular docking studies of atraric acid with the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase protein. The study revealed that atraric acid has the capacity to act as a potential EGFR inhibitor via occupying the ATP binding pocket of EGFR and making favourable electrostatic interactions and van der Waals interaction with its key residues. Our results highlight P. furfuracea and its polyphenolic compound, atraric acid as a promising candidate for ovarian cancer management.

"Technical Note:" Optimisation of Diamond™ Nucleic Acid Dye preparation, application, and visualisation, for latent DNA detection.

A targeted sampling approach of latent DNA, deposited when a person makes contact with a surface, can prove challenging during crime scene or evidence processing, with the sampling of latent DNA often relying on the expert judgement from crime scene officers and forensic examiners. As such, the ability to use the quick and robust screening tool Diamond™ Nucleic Acid Dye (DD) was explored, with a focus on the visualisation of latent DNA on non-porous substrates, namely polypropylene, acrylic, aluminium, PVC composite material, glass, and crystalline silicon. The application of DD was performed according to methods reported in literature, where 10 µL of the dye solution (20-fold dilution of DD in 75% EtOH) was applied onto a variety of non-porous substrates via a micropipette and then subsequently visualised using a portable fluorescence microscope. It was discovered that there was scope for improvement in the reported methods due to the observation of crystal formations on all test substrates upon drying of the DD, resulting in the impaired visualisation of latent DNA and fingerprint detail. Thus, changes to the EtOH water ratio of the dye solution, and changes to the mode of dye application from a micropipette to a spray application, were explored to improve the drying time of the dye and mitigate the formation of crystals. While changes to the EtOH water ratio did not improve the overall drying time, the mode of dye application enhanced visualisation, with a spray application eliminating the formation of crystals no matter the EtOH water ratio. Visualisation with a portable Dino-Lite and Zeiss Widefield fluorescence microscope were also explored, with the Zeiss Widefield fluorescence microscope proving to be useful in whole print imaging and a more efficient imaging tool in a laboratory setting.

Treatment technologies to mitigate the harmful effects of recalcitrant fluoroquinolone antibiotics on the environ- ment and human health.

Antibiotic proliferation in the environment and their persistent nature is an issue of global concern as they induce antibiotic resistance threatening both human health and the ecosystem. Antibiotics have therefore been categorized as emerging pollutants. Fluoroquinolone (FQs) antibiotics are an emerging class of contaminants that are used extensively in human and veterinary medicine. The recalcitrant nature of fluoroquinolones has led to their presence in wastewater, effluents and water bodies. Even at a low concentration, FQs can stimulate antibacterial resistance. The main sources of FQ contamination include waste from pharmaceutical manufacturing industries, hospitals and households that ultimately reaches the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The conventional WWTPs are unable to completely remove FQs due to their chemical stability. Therefore, the development and implementation of more efficient, economical, convenient treatment and removal technologies are needed to adequately address the issue. This review provides an overview of the technologies available for the removal of fluoroquinolone antibiotics from wastewater including adsorptive removal, advanced oxidation processes, removal using non-carbon based nanomaterials, microbial degradation and enzymatic degradation. Each treatment technology is discussed on its merits and limitations and a comparative view is presented on the choice of an advanced treatment process for future studies and implementation. A discussion on the commercialization potential and eco-friendliness of each technology is also included in the review. The importance of metabolite identification and their residual toxicity determination has been emphasized. The last section of the review provides an overview of the policy interventions and regulatory frameworks that aid in retrofitting antibiotics as a central key focus contaminant and thereby defining the discharge limits for antibiotics and establishing safe manufacturing practices.

Metabolite Profiling of the Indian Food Spice Lichen, Pseudevernia furfuracea Combined With Optimised Extraction Methodology to Obtain Bioactive Phenolic Compounds.

Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf (Parmeliaceae) is a well-known epiphytic lichen commonly used in Indian spice mixtures and food preparations such as curries. This study is an attempt to find the best extraction methodology with respect to extractive yield, total polyphenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content and antioxidant activities of lichen P. furfuracea. Two phenolic compounds, atraric acid and olivetoric acid were isolated and quantified in their respective extracts with the aid of reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The highest concentration of both the compounds, atraric acid (4.89 mg/g DW) and olivetoric acid (11.46 mg/g DW) were found in 70% methanol extract. A direct correlation was also observed between the concentrations of these compounds with the free radical scavenging potential of the extracts which might contribute towards the antioxidant potential of the extract. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy and HPLC analysis which was used to study the effect of pre-processing on extraction process highlighted the capacity of a mixer grinder technique for improved separation of surface localized metabolites and enrichment of the fraction. An investigation of the chemical profile of the bioactive extract 70% methanol extract using UHPLC-DAD-MS lead to tentative identification of forty nine compounds. This extract was also assessed towards HEK 293 T cell line for cytotoxicity analysis. Concentration range of 0.156 to 100 µg/ml of PF70M extract exhibited no significant cell death as compared to control. Further, the active extract showed protective effect against hydroxyl radical's destructive effects on DNA when assessed using DNA nicking assay. Based upon this, it can be concluded that optimization of extraction solvent, sample pre-proceesing and extraction techniques can be useful in extraction of specific antioxidant metabolites.

Simultaneous determination of 10 new psychoactive piperazine derivatives in urine using ultrasound-assisted low-density solvent dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction combined with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

With the rapid development of synthetic drugs, novel piperazine derivatives, as an increasingly important class of new psychoactive substances (NPS), have attracted global attention owing to their increasing demand in the illicit drug market. In this study, ten piperazine derivatives were analyzed in urine samples after pre-treatment with ultrasound-assisted low-density solvent dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (UA-LDS-DLLME) combined with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). This simple approach involved the use of urine samples (1 mL) adjusted to pH 12, which was added to 100 µL of n-hexane and subjected to ultrasonication for 3 min to completely disperse the sample in the n-hexane solution. The resulting turbid suspension was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 3 min, and the supernatant was extracted and analyzed using GC-MS/MS. Under the optimized conditions presented in this study, the linear relationship between the analytes was good within 10-1500 ng/mL, and the correlation coefficient (r) was between .9914 and .9983. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.3-2 ng/mL (S/N = 3), and the lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) was 10 ng/mL (S/N = 10) with the recovery of the analytes of interest from the spiked samples being 76.3%-93.3%. This method has been used to analyze real-world samples; our study shows that the UA-LDS-DLLME approach can be used for rapid analysis while consuming minimal solvent for the simultaneous determination of a range of analytes. This method has the potential for use in clinical analyses and forensic toxicology.

Investigation into the prevalence of background DNA on flooring within houses and its transfer to a contacting surface.

When sampling an item or surface for DNA, the collection of 'background' DNA (bDNA) from previous use poses an issue as it may impact the detectability of 'target' DNA and the interpretation of the DNA results given alleged activities. This study investigates the prevalence and transferability of bDNA on flooring surfaces within occupied houses under conditions similar to those that are encountered in casework. To assess bDNA presence and transferability, and the impact of how and who contacts the surface, areas used frequently and infrequently were targeted in the kitchen, living room, bedroom and bathroom of five houses, and two samples taken from each area; one directly from the floor and another from a cotton surface after contacting the floor. DNA was detected in 97 % (of 39) of samples collected directly from flooring, with 92 % providing interpretable profiles. DNA was detected in 85 % (of 39) samples collected from cotton swatches after contacting the floors, with 79 % providing interpretable profiles. The overall quantity, number of contributors, and likelihood of observing a major contributor was greater for samples obtained directly from the floor compared to the cotton. In 80 % of samples recovered from cotton, the quantity of DNA recovered was less than 20 % of that which was recovered directly from the floor. Overall, no trend was observed between the level of reported activity by occupants within areas of the same room and the quantity of DNA recovered directly from the flooring, the quantity of DNA transferred to and recovered from the cotton, or the number of contributors in resulting DNA profiles. In contrast, greater quantities of DNA were generally obtained from houses with a greater number of occupants. Profile composition was similar for samples collected from different areas of the same room, irrespective of the level of activity and from where the sample was obtained (i.e. directly from the floor or contacting surface). Occupants were often not detected in DNA profiles collected from rooms they were known to use and could be observed in profiles collected from rooms they reportedly did not use. The findings of this preliminary investigation provide an understanding of the complexities of transfer, persistence, prevalence and recovery of DNA traces in houses occupied by multiple people and highlights the need to consider how and who uses a space, in the investigation of criminal activities where DNA traces are recovered from, or have been in contact with, flooring.

Fungi as a Potential Source of Pigments: Harnessing Filamentous Fungi.

The growing concern over the harmful effects of synthetic colorants on both the consumer and the environment has raised a strong interest in natural coloring alternatives. As a result the worldwide demand for colorants of natural origin is rapidly increasing in the food, cosmetic and textile sectors. Natural colorants have the capacity to be used for a variety of industrial applications, for instance, as dyes for textile and non-textile substrates such as leather, paper, within paints and coatings, in cosmetics, and in food additives. Currently, pigments and colorants produced through plants and microbes are the primary source exploited by modern industries. Among the other non-conventional sources, filamentous fungi particularly ascomycetous and basidiomycetous fungi (mushrooms), and lichens (symbiotic association of a fungus with a green alga or cyanobacterium) are known to produce an extraordinary range of colors including several chemical classes of pigments such as melanins, azaphilones, flavins, phenazines, and quinines. This review seeks to emphasize the opportunity afforded by pigments naturally found in fungi as a viable green alternative to current sources. This review presents a comprehensive discussion on the capacity of fungal resources such as endophytes, halophytes, and fungi obtained from a range or sources such as soil, sediments, mangroves, and marine environments. A key driver of the interest in fungi as a source of pigments stems from environmental factors and discussion here will extend on the advancement of greener extraction techniques used for the extraction of intracellular and extracellular pigments. The search for compounds of interest requires a multidisciplinary approach and techniques such as metabolomics, metabolic engineering and biotechnological approaches that have potential to deal with various challenges faced by pigment industry.

'Cathodic' electrochemiluminescence of [Ru(bpy)3]2+ and tri-n-propylamine confirmed as emission at the counter electrode.

A new approach to examine electrochemiluminescence (ECL), in which the potentials at both the working and counter electrodes are measured and the emitted light is detected by a photomultiplier tube, camera and then a charge-coupled device (CCD) spectrometer, provides unequivocal evidence that the purported cathodic ECL of [Ru(bpy)3]2+ and tri-n-propylamine actually arises from anodic reactions at the counter electrode.