Projected Contributions of Nurse Practitioners and Physicians Assistant to Buprenorphine Treatment Services for Opioid Use Disorder in Rural Areas.

The United States is experiencing an opioid use disorder epidemic. The Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act allows nurse practitioners (NPs) and physician assistants (PAs) to obtain a Drug Enforcement Administration waiver to prescribe medication-assisted treatment (MAT) for opioid use disorder. This study projected the potential increase in MAT availability provided by NPs and PAs for rural patients. Using workforce and survey data, and state scope of practice regulations, the number of treatment slots that could be provided by NPs and PAs was estimated for rural areas. NPs and PAs are projected to increase the number of rural patients treated with buprenorphine by 10,777 (15.2%). Census Divisions varied substantially in the number of projected new treatment slots per 10,000 population (0.8-10.6). The New England and East South Central Census Divisions are projected to have the largest population-adjusted increase. NPs and PAs have considerable potential to reduce substantial MAT access disparities.

Geographic Variation in the Supply of Selected Behavioral Health Providers.

INTRODUCTION: In 2015, an estimated 43.4 million Americans aged 18 and older suffered from a behavioral health issue. Accurate estimates of the number of psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric nurse practitioners are needed as demand for behavioral health care grows. METHODS: The National Plan and Provider Enumeration System National Provider Identifier data (October 2015) was used to examine the supply of psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric nurse practitioners. Providers were classified into three geographic categories based on their practicing county (metropolitan, micropolitan, and non-core). Claritas 2014 U.S. population data were used to calculate provider-to-population ratios for each provider type. Analysis was completed in 2016. RESULTS: Substantial variation exists across Census Divisions in the per capita supply of psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric nurse practitioners. The New England Census Division had the highest per capita supply and the West South Central Census Division had among the lowest supply of all three provider types. Nationally, the per capita supply of these providers was substantially lower in non-metropolitan counties than in metropolitan counties, but Census Division disparities persisted across geographic categories. There was a more than tenfold difference in the percentage of counties lacking a psychiatrist between the New England Census Division (6%) and the West North Central Census Division (69%). Higher percentages of non-metropolitan counties lacked a psychiatrist. CONCLUSIONS: Psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric nurse practitioners are unequally distributed throughout the U.S. Disparities exist across Census Divisions and geographic categories. Understanding this unequal distribution is necessary for developing approaches to improving access to behavioral health services for underserved populations. SUPPLEMENT INFORMATION: This article is part of a supplement entitled The Behavioral Health Workforce: Planning, Practice, and Preparation, which is sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration and the Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Prescribing Practices of Rural Physicians Waivered to Prescribe Buprenorphine.

INTRODUCTION: Opioid use disorder is a serious public health burden, especially throughout rural America. Although efforts have been made to increase the availability of buprenorphine (an office-based medication-assisted treatment), more than 60% of rural counties in the U.S. lack a physician with a Drug Enforcement Administration waiver to prescribe it. METHODS: This study surveyed all rural physicians with a Drug Enforcement Administration waiver in 2016 to prescribe buprenorphine for opioid use disorder in the U.S. and asked about physician's demographics, prescribing practices, and barriers to prescribing buprenorphine for treatment of opioid use disorder. RESULTS: Although 89.4% of physicians reported having prescribed buprenorphine for opioid use disorder, only 56.2% were currently accepting new patients for treatment. Physicians with a 30-patient waiver were treating, on average, 8.8 patients, but 53% were not treating any patients. Those with a 100-patient waiver were treating, on average, 56.9 patients. Significant practice variations were found throughout the U.S. by Census Division; more physicians in the Pacific Census Division accepted their own patients for treatment with buprenorphine whereas more physicians in the New England Census Divisions accepted patients of other clinicians in their practice. Although most physicians accepted private insurance, significantly fewer physicians in the East South Central and West South Central Census Divisions accepted Medicaid. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that without incorporating information about whether or not physicians are accepting new patients, how many patients are being treated, and which patients and reimbursements are accepted, estimating the supply of buprenorphine treatment services using the Drug Enforcement Administration waivered physicians list will overestimate treatment availability. SUPPLEMENT INFORMATION: This article is part of a supplement entitled The Behavioral Health Workforce: Planning, Practice, and Preparation, which is sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration and the Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Barriers Rural Physicians Face Prescribing Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder.

Opioid use disorder is a serious public health problem. Management with buprenorphine is an effective, office-based, medication-assisted treatment, but 60.1% of rural counties in the United States lack a physician with a Drug Enforcement Agency waiver to prescribe buprenorphine. This national study surveyed all rural physicians who have received a waiver in the United States and found that those who were not actively prescribing buprenorphine reported significantly more barriers than those who were, regardless of whether they were treating the maximum number of patients their waiver allowed. These findings suggest the need for tailored strategies to address barriers to providing buprenorphine for opioid use disorder and to support physicians who are adding or maintaining this service.

What Is the Potential of Community Paramedicine to Fill Rural Health Care Gaps?

Community paramedicine (CP) uses emergency medical services (EMS) providers to help rural communities increase access to primary care and public health services. This study examined goals, activities, and outcomes of 31 rural-serving CP programs through structured interviews of program leaders and document review. Common goals included managing chronic disease (90.3%); and reducing emergency department visits (83.9%), hospital admissions/readmissions (83.9%), and costs (83.9%). Target populations included the chronically ill (90.3%), post-hospital discharge patients (80.6%), and frequent EMS users (64.5%). Community paramedicine programs engaged in bi-directional referrals most often with primary care facilities (67.7%), hospitals (54.8%), and home health (38.7%). Programs provided assessment, testing, preventive care, and post-discharge services. Reported outcomes were promising, but few programs used rigorous evaluation methods. Rural-serving CP programs provided services to shift costs to less expensive settings and provide appropriate care where vulnerable patients live, but more evidence is needed that care is safe, effective, and economical.