Peptide nucleic acids can form hairpins and bind RNA-binding proteins.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are a major class of proteins that interact with RNAs to change their fate or function. RBPs and the ribonucleoprotein complexes they constitute are involved in many essential cellular processes. In many cases, the molecular details of RBP:RNA interactions differ between viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes, making prokaryotic and viral RBPs good potential drug targets. However, targeting RBPs with small molecules has so far been met with limited success as RNA-binding sites tend to be extended, shallow and dynamic with a mixture of charged, polar and hydrophobic interactions. Here, we show that peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) with nucleic acid-like binding properties and a highly stable peptide-like backbone can be used to target some RBPs. We have designed PNAs to mimic the short RNA stem-loop sequence required for the initiation of prokaryotic signal recognition particle (SRP) assembly, a target for antibiotics development. Using a range of biophysical and biochemical assays, the designed PNAs were demonstrated to fold into a hairpin structure, bind the targeted protein and compete with the native RNA hairpin to inhibit SRP formation. To show the applicability of PNAs against other RBPs, a PNA was also shown to bind Nsp9 from SARS-CoV-2, a protein that exhibits non-sequence-specific RNA binding but preferentially binds hairpin structures. Taken together, our results support that PNAs can be a promising class of compounds for targeting RNA-binding activities in RBPs.

A Biochemical and Biophysical Analysis of the Interaction of nsp9 with nsp12 from SARS-CoV-2-Implications for Future Drug Discovery Efforts.

The ongoing global pandemic of the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) disease is caused by the virus SARS-CoV-2, with very few highly effective antiviral treatments currently available. The machinery responsible for the replication and transcription of viral RNA during infection is made up of several important proteins. Two of these are nsp12, the catalytic subunit of the viral polymerase, and nsp9, a cofactor of nsp12 involved in the capping and priming of viral RNA. While several recent studies have determined the structural details of the interaction of nsp9 with nsp12 in the context of RNA capping, very few biochemical or biophysical details are currently available. In this study, we have used a combination of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments, size exclusion chromatography (SEC) experiments, and biochemical assays to identify specific nsp9 residues that are critical for nsp12 binding as well as RNAylation, both of which are essential for the RNA capping process. Our data indicate that nsp9 dimerization is unlikely to play a significant functional role in the virus. We confirm that a set of recently discovered antiviral peptides inhibit nsp9-nsp12 interaction by specifically binding to nsp9; however, we find that these peptides do not impact RNAylation. In summary, our results have important implications for future drug discovery efforts to combat SARS-CoV-2 and any newly emerging coronaviruses.

Sequence- and Structure-Dependent Cytotoxicity of Phosphorothioate and 2'-O-Methyl Modified Single-Stranded Oligonucleotides.

Single-stranded oligonucleotides (SSOs) are a rapidly expanding class of therapeutics that comprises antisense oligonucleotides, microRNAs, and aptamers, with ten clinically approved molecules. Chemical modifications such as the phosphorothioate backbone and the 2'-O-methyl ribose can improve the stability and pharmacokinetic properties of therapeutic SSOs, but they can also lead to toxicity in vitro and in vivo through nonspecific interactions with cellular proteins, gene expression changes, disturbed RNA processing, and changes in nuclear structures and protein distribution. In this study, we screened a mini library of 277 phosphorothioate and 2'-O-methyl-modified SSOs, with or without mRNA complementarity, for cytotoxic properties in two cancer cell lines. Using circular dichroism, nucleic magnetic resonance, and molecular dynamics simulations, we show that phosphorothioate- and 2'-O-methyl-modified SSOs that form stable hairpin structures through Watson-Crick base pairing are more likely to be cytotoxic than those that exist in an extended conformation. In addition, moderate and highly cytotoxic SSOs in our dataset have a higher mean purine composition than pyrimidine. Overall, our study demonstrates a structure-cytotoxicity relationship and indicates that the formation of stable hairpins should be a consideration when designing SSOs toward optimal therapeutic profiles.

A structural analysis of the nsp9 protein from the coronavirus MERS CoV reveals a conserved RNA binding interface.

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV-2) are RNA viruses from the Betacoronavirus family that cause serious respiratory illness in humans. One of the conserved non-structural proteins encoded for by the coronavirus family is non-structural protein 9 (nsp9). Nsp9 plays an important role in the RNA capping process of the viral genome, where it is covalently linked to viral RNA (known as RNAylation) by the conserved viral polymerase, nsp12. Nsp9 also directly binds to RNA; we have recently revealed a distinct RNA recognition interface in the SARS CoV-2 nsp9 by using a combination of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and biolayer interferometry. In this study, we have utilized a similar methodology to determine a structural model of RNA binding of the related MERS CoV. Based on these data, we uncover important similarities and differences to SARS CoV-2 nsp9 and other coronavirus nsp9 proteins. Our findings that replacing key RNA binding residues in MERS CoV nsp9 affects RNAylation efficiency indicate that recognition of RNA may play a role in the capping process of the virus.

The molecular details of a novel phosphorylation-dependent interaction between MRN and the SOSS complex.

The repair of double-strand DNA breaks (DSBs) by homologous recombination is crucial in the maintenance of genome integrity. While the key role of the Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 (MRN) complex in repair is well known, hSSB1 (SOSSB and OBFC2B), one of the main components of the sensor of single-stranded DNA (SOSS) protein complex, has also been shown to rapidly localize to DSB breaks and promote repair. We have previously demonstrated that hSSB1 binds directly to Nbs1, a component of the MRN complex, in a DNA damage-independent manner. However, recruitment of the MRN complex has also been demonstrated by an interaction between Integrator Complex Subunit 3 (INTS3; also known as SOSSA), another member of the SOSS complex, and Nbs1. In this study, we utilize a combined approach of in silico, biochemical, and functional experiments to uncover the molecular details of INTS3 binding to Nbs1. We demonstrate that the forkhead-associated domain of Nbs1 interacts with INTS3 via phosphorylation-dependent binding to INTS3 at Threonine 592, with contributions from Serine 590. Based on these data, we propose a model of MRN recruitment to a DSB via INTS3.

A distinct ssDNA/RNA binding interface in the Nsp9 protein from SARS-CoV-2.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel, highly infectious RNA virus that belongs to the coronavirus family. Replication of the viral genome is a fundamental step in the virus life cycle and SARS-CoV-2 non-structural protein 9 (Nsp9) is shown to be essential for virus replication through its ability to bind RNA in the closely related SARS-CoV-1 strain. Two recent studies revealing the three-dimensional structure of Nsp9 from SARS-CoV-2 have demonstrated a high degree of similarity between Nsp9 proteins within the coronavirus family. However, the binding affinity to RNA is very low which, until now, has prevented the determination of the structural details of this interaction. In this study, we have utilized nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) in combination with surface biolayer interferometry (BLI) to reveal a distinct binding interface for both ssDNA and RNA that is different to the one proposed in the recently solved SARS-CoV-2 replication and transcription complex (RTC) structure. Based on these data, we have proposed a structural model of a Nsp9-RNA complex, shedding light on the molecular details of these important interactions.

hSSB2 (NABP1) is required for the recruitment of RPA during the cellular response to DNA UV damage.

Maintenance of genomic stability is critical to prevent diseases such as cancer. As such, eukaryotic cells have multiple pathways to efficiently detect, signal and repair DNA damage. One common form of exogenous DNA damage comes from ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation. UVB generates cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD) that must be rapidly detected and repaired to maintain the genetic code. The nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway is the main repair system for this type of DNA damage. Here, we determined the role of the human Single-Stranded DNA Binding protein 2, hSSB2, in the response to UVB exposure. We demonstrate that hSSB2 levels increase in vitro and in vivo after UVB irradiation and that hSSB2 rapidly binds to chromatin. Depletion of hSSB2 results in significantly decreased Replication Protein A (RPA32) phosphorylation and impaired RPA32 localisation to the site of UV-induced DNA damage. Delayed recruitment of NER protein Xeroderma Pigmentosum group C (XPC) was also observed, leading to increased cellular sensitivity to UVB. Finally, hSSB2 was shown to have affinity for single-strand DNA containing a single CPD and for duplex DNA with a two-base mismatch mimicking a CPD moiety. Altogether our data demonstrate that hSSB2 is involved in the cellular response to UV exposure.

Expression, Purification, and Solution-State NMR Analysis of the Two Human Single-Stranded DNA-Binding Proteins hSSB1 (NABP2/OBFC2B) and hSSB2 (NAPB1/OBFC2A).

Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins (SSBs) are essential to all living organisms as protectors and guardians of the genome. Apart from the well-characterized RPA, humans have also evolved two further SSBs, termed hSSB1 and hSSB2. Over the last few years, we have used NMR spectroscopy to determine the molecular and structural details of both hSSBs and their interactions with DNA and RNA. Here we provide a detailed overview of how to express and purify recombinant versions of these important human proteins for the purpose of detailed structural analysis by high-resolution solution-state NMR.

The structural details of the interaction of single-stranded DNA binding protein hSSB2 (NABP1/OBFC2A) with UV-damaged DNA.

Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins (SSBs) are required for all known DNA metabolic events such as DNA replication, recombination and repair. While a wealth of structural and functional data is available on the essential human SSB, hSSB1 (NABP2/OBFC2B), the close homolog hSSB2 (NABP1/OBFC2A) remains relatively uncharacterized. Both SSBs possess a well-structured OB (oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide-binding) domain that is able to recognize single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) followed by a flexible carboxyl-tail implicated in the interaction with other proteins. Despite the high sequence similarity of the OB domain, several recent studies have revealed distinct functional differences between hSSB1 and hSSB2. In this study, we show that hSSB2 is able to recognize cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD) that form in cellular DNA as a consequence of UV damage. Using a combination of biolayer interferometry and NMR, we determine the molecular details of the binding of the OB domain of hSSB2 to CPD-containing ssDNA, confirming the role of four key aromatic residues in hSSB2 (W59, Y78, W82, and Y89) that are also conserved in hSSB1. Our structural data thus demonstrate that ssDNA recognition by the OB fold of hSSB2 is highly similar to hSSB1, indicating that one SSB may be able to replace the other in any initial ssDNA binding event. However, any subsequent recruitment of other repair proteins most likely depends on the divergent carboxyl-tail and as such is likely to be different between hSSB1 and hSSB2.

A Structural Perspective on the Regulation of Human Single-Stranded DNA Binding Protein 1 (hSSB1, OBFC2B) Function in DNA Repair.

Single-stranded DNA binding (SSB) proteins are essential to protect singe-stranded DNA (ssDNA) that exists as a result of several important DNA repair pathways in living cells. In humans, besides the well-characterised Replication Protein A (RPA) we have described another SSB termed human SSB1 (hSSB1, OBFC2B) and have shown that this protein is an important player in the maintenance of the genome. In this review we define the structural and biophysical details of how hSSB1 interacts with both DNA and other essential proteins. While the presence of the oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide (OB) domain ensures ssDNA binding by hSSB1, it has also been shown to self-oligomerise as well as interact with and being modified by several proteins highlighting the versatility that hSSB1 displays in the context of DNA repair. A detailed structural understanding of these processes will likely lead to the designs of tailored hSSB1 inhibitors as anti-cancer drugs in the near future.

Human single-stranded DNA binding protein 1 (hSSB1, OBFC2B), a critical component of the DNA damage response.

Our genomic DNA is found predominantly in a double-stranded helical conformation. However, there are a number of cellular transactions and DNA damage events that result in the exposure of single stranded regions of DNA. DNA transactions require these regions of single stranded DNA, but they are only transient in nature as they are particularly susceptible to further damage through chemical and enzymatic degradation, metabolic activation, and formation of secondary structures. To protect these exposed regions of single stranded DNA, all living organisms have members of the Single Stranded DNA Binding (SSB) protein family, which are characterised by a conserved oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide-binding (OB) domain. In humans, three such proteins members have been identified; namely the Replication Protein A (RPA) complex, hSSB1 and hSSB2. While RPA is extremely well characterised, the roles of hSSB1 and hSSB2 have only emerged recently. In this review, we discuss the critical roles that hSSB1 plays in the maintenance of genomic stability.

Backbone 1H, 13C and 15N resonance assignments of the OB domain of the single stranded DNA-binding protein hSSB2 (NABP1/OBFC2A) and chemical shift mapping of the DNA-binding interface.

Single stranded DNA-binding proteins (SSBs) are essential for the maintenance of genome integrity and are required in in all known cellular organisms. Over the last 10 years, the role of two new human SSBs, hSSB1 (NABP2/OBFC2B) and hSSB2 (NABP1/OBFC2A), has been described and characterised in various important DNA repair processes. Both these proteins are made up of a conserved oligonucleotide-binding (OB) fold that is responsible for ssDNA recognition as well a unique flexible carboxy-terminal extension involved in protein-protein interactions. Due to their similar domain organisation, hSSB1 and hSSB2 have been found to display some overlapping functions. However, several studies have also revealed cell- and tissue-specific roles for these two proteins, most likely due to small but significant differences in the protein sequence of the OB domains. While the molecular details of ssDNA binding by hSSB1 has been studied extensively, comparatively little is known about hSSB2. In this study, we use NMR solution-state backbone resonance assignments of the OB domain of hSSB2 to map the ssDNA interaction interface. Our data reveal that ssDNA binding by hSSB2 is driven by four key aromatic residues in analogy to hSSB1, however, some significant differences in the chemical shift perturbations are observed, reflecting differences in ssDNA recognition. Future studies will aim at determining the structural basis of these differences and thus help to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the functional divergences that these novel hSSBs display in the context of genome maintenance.

A data-driven structural model of hSSB1 (NABP2/OBFC2B) self-oligomerization.

The maintenance of genome stability depends on the ability of the cell to repair DNA efficiently. Single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSBs) play an important role in DNA processing events such as replication, recombination and repair. While the role of human single-stranded DNA binding protein 1 (hSSB1/NABP2/OBFC2B) in the repair of double-stranded breaks has been well established, we have recently shown that it is also essential for the base excision repair (BER) pathway following oxidative DNA damage. However, unlike in DSB repair, the formation of stable hSSB1 oligomers under oxidizing conditions is an important prerequisite for its proper function in BER. In this study, we have used solution-state NMR in combination with biophysical and functional experiments to obtain a structural model of hSSB1 self-oligomerization. We reveal that hSSB1 forms a tetramer that is structurally similar to the SSB from Escherichia coli and is stabilized by two cysteines (C81 and C99) as well as a subset of charged and hydrophobic residues. Our structural and functional data also show that hSSB1 oligomerization does not preclude its function in DSB repair, where it can interact with Ints3, a component of the SOSS1 complex, further establishing the versatility that hSSB1 displays in maintaining genome integrity.

hSSB1 phosphorylation is dynamically regulated by DNA-PK and PPP-family protein phosphatases.

The maintenance of genomic stability is essential for cellular viability and the prevention of diseases such as cancer. Human single-stranded DNA-binding protein 1 (hSSB1) is a protein with roles in the stabilisation and restart of stalled DNA replication forks, as well as in the repair of oxidative DNA lesions and double-strand DNA breaks. In the latter process, phosphorylation of threonine 117 by the ATM kinase is required for hSSB1 stability and efficient DNA repair. The regulation of hSSB1 in other DNA repair pathways has however remained unclear. Here we report that hSSB1 is also directly phosphorylated by DNA-PK at serine residue 134. While this modification is largely suppressed in undamaged cells by PPP-family protein phosphatases, S134 phosphorylation is enhanced following the disruption of replication forks and promotes cellular survival. Together, these data thereby represent a novel mechanism for hSSB1 regulation following the inhibition of replication.

High-affinity RNA binding by a hyperthermophilic single-stranded DNA-binding protein.

Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins (SSBs), including replication protein A (RPA) in eukaryotes, play a central role in DNA replication, recombination, and repair. SSBs utilise an oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide-binding (OB) fold domain to bind DNA, and typically oligomerise in solution to bring multiple OB fold domains together in the functional SSB. SSBs from hyperthermophilic crenarchaea, such as Sulfolobus solfataricus, have an unusual structure with a single OB fold coupled to a flexible C-terminal tail. The OB fold resembles those in RPA, whilst the tail is reminiscent of bacterial SSBs and mediates interaction with other proteins. One paradigm in the field is that SSBs bind specifically to ssDNA and much less strongly to RNA, ensuring that their functions are restricted to DNA metabolism. Here, we use a combination of biochemical and biophysical approaches to demonstrate that the binding properties of S. solfataricus SSB are essentially identical for ssDNA and ssRNA. These features may represent an adaptation to a hyperthermophilic lifestyle, where DNA and RNA damage is a more frequent event.

A structural analysis of DNA binding by hSSB1 (NABP2/OBFC2B) in solution.

Single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSBs) play an important role in DNA processing events such as replication, recombination and repair. Human single-stranded DNA binding protein 1 (hSSB1/NABP2/OBFC2B) contains a single oligosaccharide/oligonucleotide binding (OB) domain followed by a charged C-terminus and is structurally homologous to the SSB from the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeote Sulfolobus solfataricus Recent work has revealed that hSSB1 is critical to homologous recombination and numerous other important biological processes such as the regulation of telomeres, the maintenance of DNA replication forks and oxidative damage repair. Since the ability of hSSB1 to directly interact with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is paramount for all of these processes, understanding the molecular details of ssDNA recognition is essential. In this study, we have used solution-state nuclear magnetic resonance in combination with biophysical and functional experiments to structurally analyse ssDNA binding by hSSB1. We reveal that ssDNA recognition in solution is modulated by base-stacking of four key aromatic residues within the OB domain. This DNA binding mode differs significantly from the recently determined crystal structure of the SOSS1 complex containing hSSB1 and ssDNA. Our findings elucidate the detailed molecular mechanism in solution of ssDNA binding by hSSB1, a major player in the maintenance of genomic stability.

hSSB1 (NABP2/OBFC2B) is regulated by oxidative stress.

The maintenance of genome stability is an essential cellular process to prevent the development of diseases including cancer. hSSB1 (NABP2/ OBFC2A) is a critical component of the DNA damage response where it participates in the repair of double-strand DNA breaks and in base excision repair of oxidized guanine residues (8-oxoguanine) by aiding the localization of the human 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (hOGG1) to damaged DNA. Here we demonstrate that following oxidative stress, hSSB1 is stabilized as an oligomer which is required for hSSB1 to function in the removal of 8-oxoguanine. Monomeric hSSB1 shows a decreased affinity for oxidized DNA resulting in a cellular 8-oxoguanine-repair defect and in the absence of ATM signaling initiation. While hSSB1 oligomerization is important for the removal of 8-oxoguanine from the genome, it is not required for the repair of double-strand DNA-breaks by homologous recombination. These findings demonstrate a novel hSSB1 regulatory mechanism for the repair of damaged DNA.

Backbone (1)H, (13)C and (15)N resonance assignments of the OB domain of the single stranded DNA-binding protein hSSB1 (NABP2/OBFC2B) and chemical shift mapping of the DNA-binding interface.

Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins (SSBs) are highly important in DNA metabolism and play an essential role in all major DNA repair pathways. SSBs are generally characterised by the presence of an oligonucleotide binding (OB) fold which is able to recognise single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) with high affinity. We discovered two news SSBs in humans (hSSB1 and hSSB2) that both contain a single OB domain followed by a divergent spacer region and a charged C-terminus. We have extensively characterised one of these, hSSB1 (NABP2/OBFC2B), in numerous important DNA processing events such as, in DNA double-stranded break repair and in the response to oxidative DNA damage. Although the structure of hSSB1 bound to ssDNA has recently been determined using X-ray crystallography, the detailed atomic level mechanism of the interaction of hSSB1 with ssDNA in solution has not been established. In this study we report the solution-state backbone chemical shift assignments of the OB domain of hSSB1. In addition, we have utilized NMR to map the DNA-binding interface of hSSB1, revealing major differences between recognition of ssDNA under physiological conditions and in the recently determined crystal structure. Our NMR data in combination with further biophysical and biochemical experiments will allow us to address these discrepancies and shed light onto the structural basis of DNA-binding by hSSB1 in solution.

The Binding of Syndapin SH3 Domain to Dynamin Proline-rich Domain Involves Short and Long Distance Elements.

Dynamin is a GTPase that mediates vesicle fission during synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Its long C-terminal proline-rich domain contains 13 PXXP motifs, which orchestrate its interactions with multiple proteins. The SH3 domains of syndapin and endophilin bind the PXXP motifs called Site 2 and 3 (Pro-786-Pro-793) at the N-terminal end of the proline-rich domain, whereas the amphiphysin SH3 binds Site 9 (Pro-833-Pro-836) toward the C-terminal end. In some proteins, SH3/peptide interactions also involve short distance elements, which are 5-15 amino acid extensions flanking the central PXXP motif for high affinity binding. Here we found two previously unrecognized elements in the central and the C-terminal end of the dynamin proline-rich domain that account for a significant increase in syndapin binding affinity compared with a previously reported Site 2 and Site 3 PXXP peptide alone. The first new element (Gly-807-Gly-811) is short distance element on the C-terminal side of Site 2 PXXP, which might contact a groove identified under the RT loop of the SH3 domain. The second element (Arg-838-Pro-844) is located about 50 amino acids downstream of Site 2. These two elements provide additional specificity to the syndapin SH3 domain outside of the well described polyproline-binding groove. Thus, the dynamin/syndapin interaction is mediated via a network of multiple contacts outside the core PXXP motif over a previously unrecognized extended region of the proline-rich domain. To our knowledge this is the first example among known SH3 interactions to involve spatially separated and extended long-range elements that combine to provide a higher affinity interaction.

hSSB1 (NABP2/ OBFC2B) is required for the repair of 8-oxo-guanine by the hOGG1-mediated base excision repair pathway.

The maintenance of genome stability is essential to prevent loss of genetic information and the development of diseases such as cancer. One of the most common forms of damage to the genetic code is the oxidation of DNA by reactive oxygen species (ROS), of which 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-guanine (8-oxoG) is the most frequent modification. Previous studies have established that human single-stranded DNA-binding protein 1 (hSSB1) is essential for the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks by the process of homologous recombination. Here we show that hSSB1 is also required following oxidative damage. Cells lacking hSSB1 are sensitive to oxidizing agents, have deficient ATM and p53 activation and cannot effectively repair 8-oxoGs. Furthermore, we demonstrate that hSSB1 forms a complex with the human oxo-guanine glycosylase 1 (hOGG1) and is important for hOGG1 localization to the damaged chromatin. In vitro, hSSB1 binds directly to DNA containing 8-oxoguanines and enhances hOGG1 activity. These results underpin the crucial role hSSB1 plays as a guardian of the genome.