The Effectiveness of Psychological Intervention for Women Who Committed Child Sexual Abuse: An Empty Systematic Review.

The topic of sex offenses committed by women has received relatively little attention until recent decades. The scarcity of research in this domain underscores the urgent need for a more comprehensive understanding and effective interventions. Women who committed child sexual abuse (CSA) exhibit a distinct psychological profile compared to men, requiring specific intervention programs. The current systematic review has two aims: the primary aim is to analyze the effectiveness of psychological interventions with women who committed CSA, and the secondary aim is to identify the intervention models and strategies used with them. Six databases were searched for studies examining the effectiveness of psychological interventions. All retrieved papers were excluded after full-text assessments as none met the primary objective. However, eight publications fulfilled the secondary objective of identifying models and strategies that could inform intervention development. The intervention programs presented addressed specific targets focused on criminogenic needs highlighted in the literature as central to this population, as well as targets that complement the intervention according to individual characteristics. Moreover, the studies frequently emphasize an intervention approach centered on individuals' potential (and not just their deficits), employing a gender paradigm to underpin psychological interventions with this population. The results of this review highlight a major gap in the current literature concerning both the delivery and effectiveness assessment of psychological intervention for women who committed CSA. The studies incorporated for the second objective elucidated critical treatment targets and models to inform intervention strategies, which are subsequently discussed in terms of their practical implications.

The Effectiveness of Intervention Programs for Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence with Substance Abuse and/or Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review.

Despite the high prevalence and severity of intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration among men with mental health (MH) problems and substance use (SU), there is limited evidence on the most effective ways to reduce IPV within these groups. Hence, the present systematic review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of psychological interventions for male IPV perpetrators with MH issues and SU problems. Five databases (B-On, Pubmed PsycInfo, Science Direct, and Scopus) were searched for studies examining the effectiveness of IPV interventions. Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria, with 13 interventions described. Interventions were grouped into (1) specific interventions for SU among IPV perpetrators (k = 8), (2) nonspecific interventions for SU among IPV perpetrators (K = 3), and (3) specific interventions targeting MH among IPV perpetrators (k = 2). Cognitive behavioral therapy and motivational interviewing techniques were the most common approaches. Both specific and nonspecific programs addressing SU problems showed some positive effects on perpetrators' behavior and attitudes. However, data from the two intervention programs focusing on MH showed reduced symptoms and re-assaults but without significant differences between the conditions. Despite methodological shortcomings in the studies, the specific and nonspecific interventions targeting SU and IPV show promise, which hinders drawing firmer conclusions. Nonetheless, further research is necessary to deepen our understanding of the MH impact interventions on IPV perpetrators.

Life satisfaction, psychological distress, compassion satisfaction and resilience: when the pleasure of helping others protects veterinary staff from emotional suffering.

INTRODUCTION: Individuals working in veterinary field suffer significantly from mental health problems, and research has extensively focused on psychological and work-related predictors of psychological distress. This study intended to approach psychological distress through a positive lens by investigating the predictive role of life satisfaction on psychological distress in veterinary staff, and the mediating effect of compassion satisfaction, resilience and perceived social support. METHODOLOGY: A total of 868 veterinary staff (i.e. veterinarians, veterinary nurses, veterinary assistants and veterinary administrative staff) completed a web-survey assessing life satisfaction, psychological distress, compassion satisfaction, resilience, and social support. RESULTS: Life satisfaction negatively predicts psychological distress, and compassion satisfaction and resilience showed a mediation effect on the relationship between life satisfaction and psychological distress, with compassion satisfaction explaining 59% and resilience 6.4% of the effect of life satisfaction on psychological distress. CONCLUSION: Current data support the role of life satisfaction as a protective dimension on psychological distress within a broader sample population of veterinary staff in Portugal, highlighting the role of compassion satisfaction and resilience in contributing in minimising distress among veterinary staff.

Adverse childhood experiences and aggression in adulthood: The moderating role of positive childhood experiences.

BACKGROUND: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have a significant impact on a person's psychological development and predispose them to various harmful consequences in adulthood, such as different forms of aggression. Contrarily, positive childhood experiences (PCEs) operate as protective factors, buffering against the adverse effects of ACEs and promoting adaptive behaviors and psychological well-being. However, the role of PCEs in the relationship between ACEs and aggression remains relatively unexplored. OBJECTIVE: To explore the moderation role of PCEs in the relationship between ACEs and aggression and its different components across sexes in a community sample. METHODS: A sample of 1541 Portuguese adults answered an online protocol with a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Benevolent Childhood Experiences Scale, the Childhood History Questionnaire, and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. RESULTS: ACEs were positively correlated with aggression, including physical and verbal aggression, anger, and hostility, with women reporting a higher prevalence of ACEs and higher levels of anger. Men revealed higher scores in physical and verbal aggression. Furthermore, moderation analyses clarified the moderating effect of PCEs on the relationship between ACEs and aggression in women and between ACEs and anger in both sexes. PCEs attenuate the adverse impact of ACEs, reducing aggression and anger levels. CONCLUSIONS: This study stresses the complex interplay between childhood experiences and adult aggression, highlighting the differential effects of ACEs and PCEs across men and women. By clarifying these dynamics, interventions can be tailored to bolster protective factors like PCEs. This will ultimately foster healthier developmental trajectories and reduce the prevalence of aggression in adulthood.

Validation of the Revised Screening Scale for Pedophilic Interests (SSPI-2) in Portugal.

The accurate assessment of pedophilic sexual interests is crucial for the treatment and management of individuals who have sexually offended children. This study aimed to validate the Revised Screening Scale for Pedophilic Interests (SSPI-2) in a Portuguese sample of 170 men convicted of sexual offenses against children, 104 serving sentences in the community, and 66 in prison. The findings indicated that SSPI-2 demonstrated good convergent validity, as evidenced by its significant and positive associations with the "sexual deviance" item of SVR-20, the number of previous convictions for sexual crimes against children, and having 3 or more child victims, which is associated with high sensitivity and specificity in distinguishing men who show greater sexual arousal to children than to adults. Furthermore, the SSPI-2 exhibited good divergent validity, with no significant correlations observed with a self-report measure of psychopathy or with a nonsexual criminal history.

The Effectiveness of Schema Therapy in Individuals Who Committed Crimes: A Systematic Review.

Research suggests that individuals who commit crimes often exhibit various early maladaptive schemas (EMSs). EMSs are a broad and pervasive theme or pattern consisting of memories, emotions, cognitions, and bodily sensations concerning oneself and one's relationships with others. Furthermore, EMSs play a crucial role in the onset and maintenance of different types of offending behaviors, highlighting the need to implement schema therapy (ST) for perpetrators. Therefore, the present systematic review assesses the effectiveness of ST for individuals who committed crimes. Four databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Scielo) were searched for studies examining the effectiveness of ST for individuals who committed crimes. Seventeen studies were identified, but only 15 met the criteria for inclusion. Results showed that ST can lead to beneficial effects in EMSs, schema modes, personality symptoms, and risk factors to commit crimes (e.g., cognitive distortions). However, the studies, besides being scarce, revealed some methodological limitations. ST is a promising therapy for individuals who committed crimes, despite the studies' methodological shortcomings, which prevent us from drawing more firm conclusions. Although promising, more research is needed to enhance our understanding of the impact of ST therapies in forensic settings.

Intervention Program Dropout Among Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence: A Meta-Analysis of Correlated Variables.

Dropout in perpetrator intervention programs (PIPs) is extensively documented in the literature, yet findings across various studies exhibit global inconsistency. This meta-analysis aimed to identify dropout rates among individuals attending PIPs and examine sociodemographic, violence-related, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and external variables related to dropout. A search was conducted across six databases, encompassing studies published between 2010 and 2022 in English, Spanish, or Portuguese. Thirty manuscripts, comprising data from 31 independent samples, were included. Dropout rates varied from 9% to 67%. Bivariate analysis results indicated that younger age (OR = 0.69), non-White ethnicity (OR = 1.54), unemployment (OR = 1.78), offender typology other than family only (OR = 2.45), substance abuse (OR = 1.78), presenting a personality disorder (OR = 1.21), engaging in problematic leisure activities (OR = 1.28), possessing a greater criminal history (OR = 1.47), and experiencing more adversity in childhood (OR = 1.44) were significantly correlated with dropout. Additionally, the inclusion of motivational strategies in treatment (OR = 0.44) significantly decreased the likelihood of dropout. Results from multivariate analyses revealed that younger age (OR = 0.63), presenting a personality disorder (OR = 1.73), and experiencing more adversity in childhood (OR = 2.16) were significantly associated with dropout. Notably, intimate partner violence characteristics established a significant negative relation with dropout (OR = 0.59). Findings indicate that variables associated with dropout align with those related to general and intimate partner violence recidivism, suggesting that individuals requiring more intensive intervention are those who derive less benefit from it.

Bidirectional Violence in Intimate Relationships: A Systematic Review.

Intimate partner violence is a public health problem with significant consequences at different levels. Over the years, the literature has shown that most violence is not unidirectional and perpetrated by men against women but rather bidirectional, in which both couple elements may be victims, perpetrators, or both. In this systematic literature review, we aimed to systematize the empirical knowledge to assess the prevalence of bidirectional violence, the most reported types of violence, and the influence of sex and sexual orientation on this phenomenon. The search for this systematic review was conducted in four databases, and we included studies that showed the prevalence of bidirectional violence in samples aged over 18 years, in articles written in English or Portuguese, and published between 2012 and 2022. In the qualitative synthesis, 42 empirical studies were included. The results showed that bidirectional violence is the most common pattern of violence, with psychological violence being the most reported type of bidirectional violence; men and women reported bidirectional violence at similar rates, and homosexual couples reported higher percentages of bidirectional violence than heterosexual couples. These results contradict the patriarchalist view of violence that assigns the exclusivity role of the victim to women and of the perpetrator to men, demonstrating that violence occurs regardless of sex or sexual orientation. The practical implications and future directions at the level of public policies to give visibility to the phenomenon will be duly discussed.

The impact of imprisonment on individuals' mental health and society reintegration: study protocol.

BACKGROUND: Prison sentences are a particular type of penalty that aim to reintegrate individuals into society. Nonetheless, research suggests that prison sentences have a null or a criminogenic effect on recidivism and a critical impact on inmates' mental health, negatively interfering with their successful reintegration into society and recidivism. Prevalence rates of mental health disorders among individuals who commit crimes are high, but little is known about how incarceration perpetuates and/or worsens mental health symptoms. In the Portuguese context, no studies focused on understanding the impact of imprisonment on prisoners' mental health. Thus, this project aims to understand incarceration's mental health and well-being impact on male and female individuals convicted to prison, both while incarcerated and after release. METHODS: The study will follow a quantitative cross-sectional design of male and female individuals in prison and parole, aiming to assess different samples at different moments of the prison sentence. It will also follow a longitudinal design in a subsample of male and female individuals sentenced to prison and on parole who will be followed for one year. DISCUSSION: This study intends to have a meaningful impact on the understanding of imprisonment effects, giving important clues for developing and implementing evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies to address prisoners' and ex-prisoners' mental health and improve their ability to successfully reintegrate into society and reduce recidivism.

COVID-19 fear and anxiety as mediators in the relationship between repetitive negative thinking and psychopathology: a community-based study during the 2nd confinement in Portugal.

Repetitive negative thinking is a cognitive dimension of the onset and maintenance of psychopathology, and increased levels of psychopathology have been observed during COVID-19 lockdowns. The role of fear of COVID-19 and COVID-19 anxiety has been poorly explored in terms of psychopathology during lockdowns due to the pandemic crisis. This study examines the mediating role of fear of COVID-19 and COVID-19 anxiety in the relationship between repetitive negative thinking and psychopathology during the second lockdown in Portugal. Participants completed a web survey that included a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Fear of COVID-19 Scale, the COVID-19 Anxiety Scale, the Persistent and Intrusive Negative Thoughts Scale, and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale - 21. The results showed a positive and significant correlation between all variables and identified fear of COVID-19 and COVID-19 anxiety as significant mediators in the relationship between repetitive negative thinking and psychopathology during the second lockdown in Portugal, after controlling for being isolated, being infected, and working in first line response of COVID-19. Overall, the current findings highlight the role of cognitive dimensions such as anxiety and fear in the context of COVID-19, nearly a year after the pandemic outbreak and after the release of a vaccine. Mental health programs should consider improving coping strategies for emotion regulation, particularly fear and anxiety, during major catastrophic health-related events.

Prevalence and Impact of Revenge Pornography on a Sample of Portuguese Women.

Victims of revenge pornography (RP) suffer long-term psychological, personal, and social consequences, given that the spread of explicit content may continue to disturb them throughout their lives. However, there is a scarcity of studies on this phenomenon in Portugal. The present study aims to identify the prevalence of RP and analyze its impact on self-esteem, humiliation, depression, and anxiety, and compare victims and non-victims of RP on these same variables. The sample comprises 274 Portuguese women aged between 18 and 82. The data was collected through an online protocol consisting of a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Humiliation Inventory, and the Brief Symptoms Inventory. From the total sample, 45 (16.4%) participants reported at least one experience of RP. RP victims reported higher levels of humiliation, anxiety, and depression and lower levels of self-esteem than non-victims. However, only humiliation distinguished RP victims and non-victims. RP is a growing phenomenon enhanced by the intensified use of technology. Along with this phenomenon comes the impact on victims, which has long-term consequences. This study contributes to the scientific community since the scientific study of RP and its impact on victims is still incipient.

Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence and COVID-19-Related Anxiety During the Second Lockdown in Portugal: The Mediating Role of Anxiety, Depression, and Stress.

Purpose: The restrictions imposed during lockdown by COVID-19 pandemic entailed increased risks for the perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV). Widespread fear and uncertainty related to the virus and the policies adopted to contain it have been linked to a set of social, emotional, and economic stressors that can increase the risk of IPV. The present study aims to assess the association between COVID-19-related anxiety, psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress), and IPV perpetration in the community, as well as to assess the mediating role of psychological distress and depression, anxiety, and stress in the relationship between COVID-19-related anxiety and the perpetration of IPV. Methods: A sample of 336 participants (282 females, Mage = 34.91, SD = 11.72) was recruited from the Portuguese population through an online self-report questionnaire, completed after the second lockdown (from April and July 2021). Results: High rates of IPV perpetration during the confinement, in particular psychological and physical IPV, were found. COVID-19-related anxiety and psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress) were related to higher levels of IPV perpetration. Psychological distress and stress mediated the relationship between COVID-19-related anxiety and total IPV perpetration and psychological distress and depression mediated the relationship between COVID-19-related anxiety and psychological IPV perpetration. Conclusions: This study highlights the mediating role of psychological distress on IPV perpetration. Practical implications for intervention policies in IPV perpetration will be discussed.

The role of positive childhood experiences in the link between childhood maltreatment and affective lability in a sample of incarcerated men and women.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with a history of child maltreatment (CM) tend to show high affective lability (AL) and criminal behavior. However, positive childhood experiences (PCEs) may act as a protective factor even in the presence of child maltreatment. OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to analyze the relationship between CM, PCEs, and AL in adulthood, identify the predictors of AL and analyze the moderating role of PCEs in the relationship between CM and AL in a sample of 424 incarcerated men (n = 343) and women (n = 81), aged between 18 and 73 years (M = 37.88). METHODS: Participants responded to an online protocol consisting of a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), the Benevolent Childhood Experiences Scale (BCEs), and the Affective Lability Scale - Short Version (ALS-18). RESULTS: CM was positively associated with AL and negatively associated with PCEs, and PCEs are negatively associated with AL. Regression analyses, after controlling for age, sex, and education, confirmed the role of PCEs on AL, above and beyond CM. However, moderation analysis showed that PCEs did not moderate the relationship between CM and AL for either men or women. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the complexity of human development and behavior from early childhood into adulthood. Further studies are needed to better understand the role of PCEs in the relationship between ACEs and AL among inmates in order to develop more appropriate prevention and intervention programs.

Motivational Interview Techniques and the Effectiveness of Intervention Programs With Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review.

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is widely recognized as a severe public health issue. Perpetrators' Intervention Programs (PIPs) have been essential to prevent recidivism, and the incorporation of Motivational Interview Techniques (MIT) has shown to be an added value in this area. Objective: The present systematic review aims to analyze the incorporation of MIT (i.e., pre-treatment, isolated treatment, and conjoined with PIPs) in interventions with IPV perpetrators and its potential impact on their behavior and attitudes regarding motivation for change and treatment compliance. Method: The following research equation was used: "Intimate Partner Violence" AND ("Perpetrator" OR "Batterer" OR "Offender") AND ("Motivation" OR "Motivational Interview") AND ("Intervention" OR "Intervention Program" OR "Batterer Intervention Program") AND ("Effectiveness OR "Program Effectiveness"); in four separate databases: PubMed, PsycINFO, Science Direct, and EBSCO. Studies in English, Portuguese, and Spanish were included, and 15 were identified according to the defined inclusion criteria. Results: Studies demonstrated that MIT increases attendance rates, treatment adherence, motivation for change, and behavioral and attitudinal outcomes. More specifically, MIT showed greater effectiveness among participants with low readiness to change and in the early stages of change. Conclusion: This systematic review corroborates the importance of incorporating MIT in PIPs to improve intervention efficacy.

Positive childhood experiences and adverse experiences: Psychometric properties of the Benevolent Childhood Experiences Scale (BCEs) among the Portuguese population.

BACKGROUND: Positive childhood experiences have a positive effect on adulthood, and the absence of positive experiences can be more damaging throughout life than the presence of adversity. Recently, researchers have developed the Benevolent Childhood Experiences Scale (BCEs), an instrument designed to assess positive childhood experiences. OBJECTIVES: The present study aims to adapt the BCEs to the Portuguese population and examines its psychometric properties. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTINGS: 1886 adults with a mean age of 36.36 years (SD = 13.66) from the community participated in this study. METHODS: Participants responded to an online protocol consisting of a sociodemographic questionnaire, the BCEs, and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). RESULTS: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis revealed a one-factor structure for the BCEs with a good fit, CFI = 0.94; NFI = 0.92; RMSEA = 0.043 [0.036, 0.050]. Results also indicated satisfactory internal consistency and discriminant validity values. Predictive validity showed that higher BCEs scores predicted fewer adverse experiences in the last 3 years, but only before accounting for adverse childhood experiences. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the results support the assertion that the Portuguese version of the BCEs is a valuable, brief, and psychometrically reliable instrument to measure positive childhood experiences that is suitable for use in Portugal.

Crimes Against Women: From Violence to Homicide.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a highly prevalent phenomenon worldwide and is considered a severe violation of human rights. Intimate partner homicide (IPH) and attempted intimate partner homicide (AIPH) although less frequent have a severe direct or indirect impact on victims. Despite the vast literature on IPV and IPH, there is still scarce research on AIPH. Thus, this study aimed to analyze whether perpetrators of IPV, IPH, and AIPH differ from each other, as well as to identify the factors that predict violence in intimacy. For those purposes, we performed a comparative analysis between 50 male individuals convicted of IPH, 27 convicted of AIPH, and 168 convicted of IPV from Portugal. The data were collected using an interview and a set of psychological measures. Results revealed that, although IPV, IPH, and AIPH perpetrators' share some characteristics, significant differences were found between them. IPV perpetrators were more prone to perpetrate violent behaviors against an intimate partner or ex-partner than IPH or AIPH offenders. The use of weapons and separation from the victim increases the probability of committing IPH or AIPH. Being divorced, having no children, and committing other crimes than domestic violence are predictors of AIPH. These results have some practical implications, in terms of both risk prediction and risk management. Accurate and comprehensive tools should be included as a routine in the primary care services, as well as in the child care services and in victim support services. Prevention and intervention efforts must be comprehensive, involving work with perpetrators and victims.

Psychopathy and Intimate Partner Violence.

Several studies found that psychopathy is an important predictor of criminal behavior in general and of intimate partner violence in particular. However, these conclusions are often based on scales with less well-established validity, and some inconsistent results have emerged with regard to the contribution of specific psychopathic facets to intimate partner violence. In a sample of 152 batterers from Portugal aged between 22 and 70 years old, we examined whether Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) total scores and the four facets (scored based on a semistructured interview and on file information) predicted the frequency of intimate partner violence. Two separate linear regression analyses were conducted controlling for criminal variables. PCL-R total scores positively predicted intimate partner violence frequency, above and beyond the criminal variables. As for the four facets, only the PCL-R affective facet held a significant effect in predicting intimate partner violence frequency after controlling for criminal variables. These results support the inclusion of psychopathy in risk assessments and treatment of perpetrators of intimate partner violence, particularly with regard to the affective deficits of the construct.

Adenosine A2A and A3 Receptors as Targets for the Treatment of Hypertensive-Diabetic Nephropathy.

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) and hypertension are prime causes for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) that often coexist in patients, but are seldom studied in combination. Kidney adenosine levels are markedly increased in diabetes, and the expression and function of renal adenosine receptors are altered in experimental diabetes. The aim of this work is to explore the impact of endogenous and exogenous adenosine on the expression/distribution profile of its receptors along the nephron of hypertensive rats with experimentally-induced diabetes. Using spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats rendered diabetic with streptozotocin (STZ), we show that treatment of SHR-STZ rats with an agonist of adenosine receptors increases A2A immunoreactivity in superficial glomeruli (SG), proximal tubule (PCT), and distal tubule (DCT). Differently, treatment of SHR-STZ rats with a xanthinic antagonist of adenosine receptors decreases adenosine A3 immunoreactivity in SG, PCT, DCT, and collecting duct. There is no difference in the immunoreactivity against the adenosine A1 and A2B receptors between the experimental groups. The agonist of adenosine receptors ameliorates renal fibrosis, probably via A2A receptors, while the antagonist exacerbates it, most likely due to tonic activation of A3 receptors. The reduction in adenosine A3 immunoreactivity might be due to receptor downregulation in response to prolonged activation. Altogether, these results suggest an opposite regulation exerted by endogenous and exogenous adenosine upon the expression of its A2A and A3 receptors along the nephron of hypertensive diabetic rats, which has a functional impact and should be taken into account when considering novel therapeutic targets for hypertensive-diabetic nephropathy.

Emotions, Affections, and Psychopathy Among Female Prisoners.

The present study intends to be a contribution to understand affections and emotions associated with female psychopathy. Although there are several studies aiming to understand psychopathy, there is still a gap in the integration of such a concept in affective dimensions, as well as a scarcity of surveys conducted in the female population. Sixty-three women confined to prison, located in the North region of Portugal, participated in this study. Participants were assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Levenson's Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP), and the Hare's Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R). Results showed that only nine women presented moderate scores of psychopathy. Moreover, women with higher psychopathy scores revealed deficits in positive emotional abilities, and secondary psychopathy was related with predominance of negative affection. In the future, it would be useful to develop more effective instruments to assess emotions and affections in psychopaths.

Diabetes downregulates renal adenosine A2A receptors in an experimental model of hypertension.

Studies on diabetic nephropathy rarely take into account that the co-existence of diabetes and hypertension is frequent and further aggravates the prognosis of renal dysfunction. Adenosine can activate four subtypes of adenosine receptors (A1, A2A, A2B and A3) and has been implicated in diabetic nephropathy. However, it is not known if, in hypertensive conditions, diabetes alters the presence/distribution profile of renal adenosine receptors. The aim of this work was to describe the presence/distribution profile of the four adenosine receptors in six renal structures (superficial/deep glomeruli, proximal/distal tubules, loop of Henle, collecting tubule) of the hypertensive kidney and to evaluate whether it is altered by diabetes. Immunoreactivities against the adenosine receptors were analyzed in six renal structures from spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR, the control group) and from SHR rats with diabetes induced by streptozotocyin (SHR-STZ group). Data showed, for the first time, that all adenosine receptors were present in the kidney of SHR rats, although the distribution pattern was specific for each adenosine receptor subtype. Also, induction of diabetes in the SHR was associated with downregulation of adenosine A2A receptors, which might be relevant for the development of hypertensive diabetic nephropathy. This study highlights the adenosine A2A receptors as a potential target to explore to prevent and/or treat early diabetes-induced hyperfiltration, at least in hypertensive conditions.