Exercise systolic blood pressures are unaffected by time of day in healthy young adults.

Blood pressure (BP) assessment during exercise testing has the capacity to identify exaggerated exercise BP (EEBP). BP has a circadian rhythm; therefore, exercise BPs may change throughout the day complicating EEBP identification. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of time of day on exercise BP in healthy young adults. Thirty-one participants [48% female; 23(4) years] completed a modified Bruce treadmill protocol in the morning (M), afternoon (A), and evening (E). Submaximal (stage 4) and peak (highest value) systolic BP (SBP) were determined and ΔSBP was calculated (peak SBP-pre-exercise SBP). Repeated-measures tests were used to compare SBP data. EEBP was defined as a submaximal SBP ≥ 170 mmHg. Chronotype was assessed using the Morning-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) and Pearson correlations were used to determine the relationship between MEQ score and ΔSBP during all tests. Significance was set at P < 0.05. Submaximal SBP (M:159(25); A:156(16); E:162(24) mmHg; P = 0.295), peak SBP (M:177(32); A:184(25); E:185(26) mmHg; P = 0.087) and ΔSBP (M:62(29); A:67(23); 65(20) mmHg; P = 0.546) were similar across time points. Eight participants had an EEBP on at least two tests. MEQ scores were correlated with ΔSBP during the A test (r = 0.357, P = 0.049) and E test (r = 0.363, P = 0.045). In conclusion, time of day had no effect on SBP responses to exercise, but our correlational analysis suggests changes in SBP may differ between chronotypes depending on the time of day of exercise. Given the clinical value of EEBP, it is notable that 26% of our healthy young sample had EEBP.

Selectively breeding for high voluntary physical activity in female mice does not bestow inherent characteristics that resemble eccentric remodeling of the heart, but the mini-muscle phenotype does.

Physical activity engagement results in a variety of positive health outcomes, including a reduction in cardiovascular disease risk partially due to eccentric remodeling of the heart. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if four replicate lines of High Runner mice that have been selectively bred for voluntary exercise on wheels have a cardiac phenotype that resembles the outcome of eccentric remodeling. Adult females (average age 55 days) from the 4 High Runner and 4 non-selected control lines were anaesthetized via vaporized isoflurane, then echocardiographic images were collected and analyzed for structural and functional differences. High Runner mice in general had lower ejection fractions compared to control mice lines (2-tailed p â€‹= â€‹0.023 6) and tended to have thicker walls of the anterior portion of the left ventricle (p â€‹= â€‹0.065). However, a subset of the High Runner individuals, termed mini-muscle mice, had greater ejection fraction (p â€‹= â€‹0.000 6), fractional shortening percentage (p â€‹< â€‹0.000 1), and ventricular mass at dissection (p â€‹< â€‹0.002 7 with body mass as a covariate) compared to non-mini muscle mice. Mice from replicate lines bred for high voluntary exercise did not all have inherent positive cardiac functional or structural characteristics, although a genetically unique subset of mini-muscle individuals did have greater functional cardiac characteristics, which in conjunction with their previously described peripheral aerobic enhancements (e.g., increased capillarity) would partially account for their increased V˙ O2max.

Joint Injury, Osteoarthritis, and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in Former National Football League Athletes: An NFL-LONG Study.

CONTEXT: Individuals with lower extremity osteoarthritis (OA) have a 25% greater risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) than those without OA. The prevalence of traumatic joint injuries among National Football League (NFL) players exposes these athletes to an elevated risk for OA and potentially a greater risk of cardiovascular risk factors (CRFs) and CVD. OBJECTIVES: To examine the associations between a history of lower extremity joint injury, lower extremity OA, and the prevalence of CRFs and CVD among former NFL athletes. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Former NFL players completed a comprehensive health questionnaire that was used in an ongoing study, the Neurologic Function Across the Lifespan: A Prospective, Longitudinal, and Translational Study for Former NFL Players (NFL-LONG). A subsample of 1738 former players reported lifetime medical diagnoses including CVD or CRFs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Crude and adjusted prevalence ratios (PRsadj) characterized the associations between CVD or CRFs and injury, OA diagnosis, or both among athletes who reported (1) no history of lower extremity joint injury or surgery and no diagnosed OA, (2) a history of lower extremity joint injury or surgery and no diagnosed OA, and (3) a history of lower extremity joint injury or surgery and diagnosed OA. RESULTS: Neither a history of lower extremity joint injury (PRadj = 1.34; 95% CI = 0.86, 2.07) nor a history of lower extremity joint injury and diagnosed OA (PRadj = 1.41; 95% CI = 0.89, 2.25) was significantly associated with CVD. However, CRFs were 30% and 53% more prevalent in former players with lower extremity joint injury and no diagnosed OA (PRadj = 1.30; 95% CI = 1.12, 1.50) and those with lower extremity joint injury and diagnosed OA (PRadj = 1.53; 95% CI = 1.31, 1.78), respectively, versus athletes with no history of either condition. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of CRFs was highest among former NFL athletes with a history of lower extremity joint injury and diagnosed OA. These findings provide insight regarding the potential pathways to chronic diseases that may be initiated by joint injury early in life.

Reliability of blood pressure responses used to define an exaggerated blood pressure response to exercise in young healthy adults.

Exaggerated blood pressure (BP) responses (EBPR) to exercise are prognostic of future cardiovascular risk. The primary objective of this study was to assess the test-retest reliability of BP responses used to categorize EBPR as absent or present. Twenty-seven healthy adults [21(2) years; 12 males] with resting BP < 130/80 mmHg completed a modified Bruce protocol treadmill exercise test on two visits separated by 6 (3) days. BP measurements were obtained during exercise using an automated auscultatory device. Submaximal and maximal systolic and diastolic BP, the change in diastolic BP from rest to maximal diastolic BP, and the change in systolic BP relative to the change in exercise intensity, quantified using the metabolic equivalent of task (SBP/MET-slope) were determined. Test-retest reliability of these BP responses was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) with a value ≥0.61 considered as substantial reliability. Submaximal diastolic BP demonstrated substantial reliability in the total group (ICC = 0.670; P ≤ 0.001). In males, submaximal systolic BP (ICC = 0.655, P < 0.01), submaximal diastolic BP (ICC = 0.699; P < 0.01) and maximal systolic BP (ICC = 0.794; P ≤ 0.001) demonstrated substantial reliability. All other BP responses were not reliable. Despite the prognostic value of EBPR, only three BP responses used to categorize EBPR demonstrated substantial test-retest reliability in healthy young males. In clinical practice, these preliminary findings would support the use of exercise BPs to identify young males with elevated cardiovascular risk, but additional research is needed to improve the clinical utility of exercise BPs and EBPR in females.

Acute physiological responses to high-intensity interval exercise in patients with coronary artery disease.

PURPOSE: Time spent closer to maximal effort during exercise is a potent stimulus for cardiorespiratory adaptations. The primary purpose was to determine which high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) protocol provided the greatest physiological stimulus by comparing time spent ≥ 90% peak oxygen consumption (V̇O2peak) and heart rate reserve (HRR) in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) in response to 3 HIIE protocols and the exercise standard of care, moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE). A secondary purpose was to assess protocol preference. METHODS: Fifteen patients with CAD (6 females, 67 ± 6 years) underwent measurements of V̇O2 and heart rate during MICE and three HIIE protocols all performed on a treadmill. The HIIE protocols included one with long intervals (4 × 4-min), short intervals (10 × 1-min), and an adapted version of the 4 × 4 [Toronto Rehabilitation Institute Protocol, (TRIP)]. Time spent ≥ 90% V̇O2peak and HRR were compared. RESULTS: Time spent ≥ 90% V̇O2peak was higher during 4 × 4 (6.3 ± 8.4 min) vs. MICE (1.7 ± 3.9 min; P = 0.001), while time spent ≥ 90% HRR was higher during 4 × 4 (6.0 ± 5.3 min) vs. MICE (0.1 ± 0.2 min; P < 0.001) and 10 × 1 (0.7 ± 0.8 min; P = 0.016). TRIP had similar responses as 10 × 1 and MICE. The 10 × 1 was the most preferred protocol and the 4 × 4 was the least preferred protocol. CONCLUSION: Longer intervals (4 × 4) provided the greatest physiological stimulus compared to the exercise standard of care and shorter intervals. However, this protocol was least preferred which may impact exercise adherence. Although the physiological stimulus is important to maximize training adaptations, exercise preferences and attitudes should be considered.

Program Evaluation and Preliminary Efficacy of Fitness and Skill-Based High-Intensity Interval Training in Physical Education.

Previous school-based high-intensity interval training (HIIT) interventions have focused on the quantity of physical activity (PA) achieved during physical education (PE) rather than students' PE experiences, including enjoyment. Purpose: To evaluate the feasibility of a fitness- and skill based HIIT intervention guided by the Self Determination Theory. Method: For this pretest-posttest randomized controlled 6-week pilot study, 4-5th grade students (15 boys, 30 girls; age = 10.5 ± 0.9 years) completed a 16-19-minute HIIT circuit (INT); whereas, 22 students (10 boys, 12 girls; age = 10.5 ± 0.9 years) engaged in regular PE (CON). Two-way mixed ANCOVA tests were performed to assess preliminary efficacy. Results: Participants reported favorable program satisfaction (mean 3.6 ± 1.5 out of 5). The physical educator reported a high feasibility survey score (31/35), and themes emerging from a program acceptability interview included positive perceptions of the HIIT program and strategies for future implementation. A large effect size was evident for cardiorespiratory fitness (ηp2 = 0.26), as VO2peak increased in INT from 53.6 ± 6.1 to 56.9 ± 7.3 ml/kg/min and decreased in CON (53.9 ± 7.0 to 52.4 ± 10.4 ml/kg/min). Students in INT exhibited greater amounts of moderate-to-vigorous PA and vigorous PA during PE versus CON, based on accelerometer data (23.4 ± 5.0 vs. 15.7 ± 4.7 min/hr, ηp2 = 0.45; 4.5 ± 2.6 vs. 2.3 ± 1.3 min/hr; ηp2 = 0.27, respectively). Conclusions: Findings support the feasibility of this fitness- and skill-based HIIT program and may be a valuable addition to elementary school PE programs.

Cardiac Remodeling in Elite Aquatic Sport Athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize and compare the sport-specific cardiac structure of elite swimmers (SW), water polo players (WP), and artistic swimmers (AS). DESIGN: A cross-sectional assessment of elite aquatic athletes' hearts. SETTING: The athletes' village at the 2019 FINA World Championships. PARTICIPANTS: Ninety athletes from swimming (SW) (20 M/17 F), water polo (WP) (21 M/9 F), and artistic swimming (AS) (23 F). ASSESSMENT AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: An echocardiographic assessment of cardiac structure was performed on noncompetition days. RESULTS: Male SW displayed primarily eccentric volume-driven remodeling, whereas male WP had a greater incidence of pressure-driven concentric geometry (SW = 5%, WP = 25%) with elevated relative wall-thickness (RWT) (SW = 0.35 ± 0.04, WP = 0.44 ± 0.08, P < 0.001). Female SW and WP hearts were similar with primarily eccentric-remodeling, but SW and WP had greater concentricity index than artistic swimmers (SW = 6.74 ± 1.45 g/(mL)2/3, WP = 6.80 ± 1.24 g/(mL)2/3, AS = 5.52 ± 1.08 g/(mL)2/3, P = 0.007). AS had normal geometry, but with increased posterior-wall specific RWT (SW = 0.32 ± 0.05, AS = 0.42 ± 0.11, P = 0.004) and greater left atrial area than SW (SW = 9.7 ± 0.9 cm2/m2, AS = 11.0 ± 1.1 cm2/m2, P = 0.003). All females had greater incidence of left ventricular (LV) posterior/septal wall-thickness ≥11 mm than typically reported (SW = 24%, WP = 11%, AS = 17%). CONCLUSIONS: Male athletes presented classic sport-specific differentiation, with SW demonstrating primarily volume-driven eccentric remodelling, and WP with greater concentric geometry indicative of pressure-driven remodeling. Female SW and WP did not display this divergence, likely because of sex-differences in adaptation. AS had unique LV-specific adaptations suggesting elevated pressure under low-volume conditions. The overall incidence of elevated wall-thickness in female athletes may point to an aquatic specific pressure-stress.

Temporal Changes of Cardiac Structure, Function, and Mechanics During Sub-acute Cervical and Thoracolumbar Spinal Cord Injury in Humans: A Case-Series.

Individuals with cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) experience deleterious changes in cardiac structure and function. However, knowledge on when cardiac alterations occur and whether this is dependent upon neurological level of injury remains to be determined. Transthoracic echocardiography was used to assess left ventricular structure, function, and mechanics in 10 male individuals (median age 34 years, lower and upper quartiles 32-50) with cervical (n = 5, c-SCI) or thoracolumbar (n = 5, tl-SCI) motor-complete SCI at 3- and 6-months post-injury. Compared to the 3-month assessment, individuals with c-SCI displayed structural, functional, and mechanical changes during the 6-month assessment, including significant reductions in end diastolic volume [121 mL (104-139) vs. 101 mL (99-133), P = 0.043], stroke volume [75 mL (61-85) vs. 60 mL (58-80), P = 0.042], myocardial contractile velocity (S') [0.11 m/s (0.10-0.13) vs. 0.09 m/s (0.08-0.10), P = 0.043], and peak diastolic longitudinal strain rate [1.29°/s (1.23-1.34) vs. 1.07°/s (0.95-1.15), P = 0.043], and increased early diastolic filling over early myocardial relaxation velocity (E/E') ratio [5.64 (4.71-7.72) vs. 7.48 (6.42-8.42), P = 0.043]. These indices did not significantly change in individuals with tl-SCI between time points. Ejection fraction was different between individuals with c-SCI and tl-SCI at 3 [61% (57-63) vs. 54% (52-55), P < 0.01] and 6 months [58% (57-62) vs. 55% (52-56), P < 0.01], though values were considered normal. These results demonstrate that individuals with c-SCI exhibit significant reductions in cardiac function from 3 to 6 months post-injury, whereas individuals with tl-SCI do not, suggesting the need for early rehabilitation to minimize cardiac consequences in this specific population.

The Identification and Management of High Blood Pressure Using Exercise Blood Pressure: Current Evidence and Practical Guidance.

High blood pressure (BP) is a leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). The identification of high BP is conventionally based on in-clinic (resting) BP measures, performed within primary health care settings. However, many cases of high BP go unrecognised or remain inadequately controlled. Thus, there is a need for complementary settings and methods for BP assessment to identify and control high BP more effectively. Exaggerated exercise BP is associated with increased CVD risk and may be a medium to improve identification and control of high BP because it is suggestive of high BP gone undetected on the basis of standard in-clinic BP measures at rest. This paper provides the evidence to support a pathway to aid identification and control of high BP in clinical exercise settings via the measurement of exercise BP. It is recommended that exercise professionals conducting exercise testing should measure BP at a fixed submaximal exercise workload at moderate intensity (e.g., ~70% age-predicted heart rate maximum, stage 1-2 of a standard Bruce treadmill protocol). If exercise systolic BP is raised (≥170 mmHg), uncontrolled high BP should be assumed and should trigger correspondence with a primary care physician to encourage follow-up care to ascertain true BP control (i.e., home, or ambulatory BP) alongside a hypertension-guided exercise and lifestyle intervention to lower CVD risk related to high BP.

Spinal cord injury impairs cardiac function due to impaired bulbospinal sympathetic control.

Spinal cord injury chronically alters cardiac structure and function and is associated with increased odds for cardiovascular disease. Here, we investigate the cardiac consequences of spinal cord injury on the acute-to-chronic continuum, and the contribution of altered bulbospinal sympathetic control to the decline in cardiac function following spinal cord injury. By combining experimental rat models of spinal cord injury with prospective clinical studies, we demonstrate that spinal cord injury causes a rapid and sustained reduction in left ventricular contractile function that precedes structural changes. In rodents, we experimentally demonstrate that this decline in left ventricular contractile function following spinal cord injury is underpinned by interrupted bulbospinal sympathetic control. In humans, we find that activation of the sympathetic circuitry below the level of spinal cord injury causes an immediate increase in systolic function. Our findings highlight the importance for early interventions to mitigate the cardiac functional decline following spinal cord injury.

Differences in Left Ventricular Function at Rest and during Isometric Handgrip Exercise in Elite Aquatic Sport Athletes.

PURPOSE: Elite swimmers (Sw) have lower diastolic function compared with elite runners, possibly as an adaptation to the aquatic training environment. Water polo players (WP) and artistic swimmers (AS) are exposed to the same hydrostatic pressures as Sw, but they are subject to different training intensities, postures, and hemodynamic stressors. Our purpose was to compare resting and exercising cardiac function in elite Sw, WP, and AS, to characterize the influence of training for aquatic sport on left ventricular (LV) adaptation. METHODS: Ninety athletes (Sw, 20M/17F; WP, 21M/9F; AS, 23F) at the 2019 Fédération Internationale de Natation World Championships volunteered for resting and stress (3 min 30% maximal isometric handgrip) echocardiographic assessment of LV global function and mechanics. RESULTS: Male Sw displayed greater resting systolic and diastolic function compared with WP; however, both groups maintained stroke volume under high-pressure handgrip stress (Sw, ∆-4% ± 12%; WP, ∆-1% ± 13%, P = 0.11). There were no differences between female Sw and WP resting LV function, but Sw demonstrated greater function over AS. During isometric handgrip, all female sport athletes maintained stroke volume (Sw, ∆3% ± 16%; WP, ∆-10% ± 11%; AS, ∆-2% ± 14%, P = 0.46), but WP had improved apical rotation (∆1.7° ± 4.5°), which was reduced in AS (∆-3.1° ± 4.5°) and maintained in Sw (∆-0.5° ± 3.8°, P = 0.04). Unlike Sw and WP, AS displayed a unique maintenance of early filling velocity during handgrip exercise (Sw, ∆-3.5 ± 14.7 cm·s-1; WP, ∆-15.1 ± 10.8 cm·s-1; AS, ∆1.5 ± 15.3 cm·s-1, P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Among male athletes, Sw display primarily volume-based functional adaptations distinct from the mixed volume-pressure adaptations of WP; however, both groups can maintain stroke volume with increased afterload. Female Sw and WP do not demonstrate sport-specific differences like males, perhaps owing to sex differences in adaptation, but have greater volume-based adaptations than AS. Lastly, AS display unique functional adaptations that may be driven by elevated pressures under low-volume conditions.

Longitudinal Changes in Ultrasound-Assessed Femoral Cartilage Thickness in Individuals from 4 to 6 Months Following Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction.

OBJECTIVE: Diagnostic ultrasound provides a valid assessment of cartilage health that has been used to observe cross-sectional cartilage thickness differences post-ACLR (anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction), but has not been used longitudinally during early recovery post-ACLR. DESIGN: The purpose of this study was to assess longitudinal changes in femoral cartilage thickness via ultrasound in individuals at 4 to 6 months post-ACLR and compared to healthy controls. Twenty participants (50% female, age = 21.1 ± 5.7 years) completed testing sessions 4 and 6 months post-ACLR. Thirty healthy controls (57% female, age = 20.8 ± 3.8 years) without knee injury history completed 2 testing sessions (>72 hours apart). Femoral cartilage ultrasound images were captured bilaterally in ACLR participants and in the dominant limb of healthy controls during all sessions. Average cartilage thicknesses in the medial, intercondylar, and lateral femoral regions were determined using a semi-automated processing technique. RESULTS: When comparing cartilage thickness mean differences or changes over time, individuals post-ACLR did not demonstrate between limb differences (P-range = 0.50-0.92), limb differences compared to healthy controls (P-range = 0.19-0.94), or changes over time (P-range = 0.22-0.72) for any femoral cartilage thickness region. However, participants demonstrated cartilage thickening (45%) or thinning (35%) that exceeded minimal detectable change (MDC) from 4 to 6 months post-ACLR, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Using MDC scores may help better identify within-subject femoral cartilage thickness changes longitudinally post-ACLR due to bidirectional cartilage thickness changes.

Exercise Improves Cardiorespiratory Fitness, but Not Arterial Health, after Spinal Cord Injury: The CHOICES Trial.

Arterial stiffness, as measured by carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV), is elevated after spinal cord injury (SCI). In the uninjured population, exercise training has been shown to reduce arterial stiffness. In a randomized, multi-center clinical trial, we evaluated the impact of two exercise interventions on cardiovascular disease risk factors in persons with chronic SCI. A total of 46 adults with motor-complete SCI with neurological levels of injury between the fourth cervical and sixth thoracic spinal cord segments (C4-T6) were randomly assigned to either body-weight-supported treadmill training (BWSTT) or arm-cycle ergometer training (ACET). Participants trained 3 days per week for 24 weeks. Exercise session duration progressed gradually to reach 30 and 60 min for ACET and BWSTT, respectively. The primary outcome was arterial stiffness, assessed by cfPWV, and was measured at baseline, 12 weeks of training, and at 24 weeks. Secondary outcomes included cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and cardiometabolic health measures and were measured before and after completion of training. Fourteen participants per intervention arm completed the exercise intervention. Our results show no effect of either exercise intervention on arterial stiffness (p = 0.07) and cardiometabolic health measures (p > 0.36). However, peak oxygen uptake increased with ACET compared with BWSTT (p = 0.04). The findings of this trial demonstrate that although 24 weeks of upper-body exercise improved CRF in persons with motor-complete SCI ≥T6, neither intervention resulted in improvements in arterial stiffness or cardiometabolic health measures. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01718977.

Acute Cardiometabolic and Perceptual Responses to Individual and Group-Based Body-Weight Resistance Exercise in Girls.

Girls' acute responses to group-based high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) are not well characterized. PURPOSE: To compare acute responses to treadmill-based HIIE (TM) and body-weight resistance exercise circuit (CIRC) and to CIRC performed in a small-group setting (group CIRC). METHOD: Nineteen girls (9.1 [1.1] y) completed exercise testing on a TM to determine peak oxygen uptake, peak heart rate (HRpeak), and maximal aerobic speed. The TM involved eight 30-second sprints at 100% maximal aerobic speed. The CIRC consisted of 8 exercises of maximal repetitions performed for 30 seconds. Each exercise bout was followed by 30 seconds of active recovery. The blood lactate concentration was assessed preexercise and postexercise. The ratings of perceived exertion, affective valence, and enjoyment were recorded at preexercise, Intervals 3 and 6, and postexercise. RESULTS: The mean heart rate was higher during group CIRC (92% [7%] HRpeak) than CIRC (86% [7%] HRpeak) and TM (85% [4%] HRpeak) (ηp2 = .49). The mean oxygen uptake equaled 76% (11%) of the peak oxygen uptake for CIRC and did not differ from TM (d = 0.02). The CIRC elicited a greater postexercise blood lactate concentration versus TM (5.8 [1.7] vs 1.4 [0.4] mM, d = 3.61). The perceptual responses were similar among conditions (P > .05), and only the rating of perceived exertion increased during exercise (ηp2 = .78). CONCLUSION: Whether performed individually or in a small group, CIRC represents HIIE and may be a feasible alternative to running-based HIIE.

Examining the relationship between arterial stiffness and swim-training volume in elite aquatic athletes.

PURPOSE: Factors such as prone body position, hydrostatic pressure, and intermittent breath-holding subject aquatic athletes to unique physical and environmental stressors during swimming exercise. The relationship between exposure to aquatic exercise and both arterial stiffness and wave reflection properties is not well-understood. This study assessed central artery stiffness and wave reflection properties in elite pool-swimmers (SW), long-distance open-water swimmers (OW), and water polo players (WP) to examine the relationship between these variables and aquatic exercise. METHODS: Athletes competing in SW, OW and WP events at the FINA World Championships were recruited. Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity, and pulse wave analysis were used to quantify arterial stiffness, and central wave reflection properties. RESULTS: Athletes undertook differing amounts of weekly swimming distance in training according to their discipline (SW: 40.2 ± 21.1 km, OW: 59.7 ± 28.4 km, WP: 11.4 ± 6.3 km; all p < 0.05). Pulse wave velocity (Males [SW: 6.0 ± 0.6 m/s, OW: 6.5 ± 0.8 m/s, WP: 6.7 ± 0.9 m/s], Females [SW: 5.4 ± 0.6 m/s, OW: 5.3 ± 0.5 m/s, WP: 5.2 ± 0.8 m/s; p = 0.4]) was similar across disciplines for females but was greater in male WP compared to male SW (p = 0.005). Augmentation index (Males [SW: - 3.4 ± 11%, OW: - 9.6 ± 6.4%, WP: 1.7 ± 10.9%], Females [SW: 3.5 ± 13.5%, OW: - 13.2 ± 10.7%, WP: - 2.8 ± 10.7%]) was lower in male OW compared to WP (p = 0.03), and higher in female SW compared to OW (p = 0.002). Augmentation index normalized to a heart rate of 75 bpm was inversely related to weekly swim distance in training (r = - 0.27, p = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence that the central vasculature of elite aquatic athletes differs by discipline, and this is associated with training load.

Sex Differences in Cardiometabolic Health Indicators after HIIT in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease.

PURPOSE: Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is an independent predictor of mortality, and females typically achieve smaller improvements in CRF than males after exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been shown to produce superior improvements in CRF than traditional cardiac rehabilitation, but the sex differences are unknown. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate sex differences for changes in CRF and cardiometabolic health indicators after HIIT in adults with coronary artery disease (CAD). METHODS AND RESULTS: A systemic search of five electronic databases for studies examining the effect of HIIT on measured CRF and cardiometabolic health indicators in adults with CAD was performed. Data (published and unpublished) from 14 studies were included in the meta-analyses with approximately eightfold greater male than female participation (n = 836 vs n = 103). Males with CAD achieved a near-significant absolute improvement in CRF (mean difference [MD] = 1.07, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.08 to 2.23 mL·kg-1⋅min-1, P = 0.07) after HIIT when compared with control; there were insufficient data to conduct such an analysis in females. Significantly smaller improvements in CRF were experienced by females than males (MD = -1.10, 95% CI = -2.08 to -0.12 mL·kg-1⋅min-1, P = 0.03); there was no sex difference for the relative (percentage) change in CRF after HIIT. Females achieved significantly smaller reductions in body mass index (MD = -0.25, 95% CI = -0.03 to -0.47 kg·m-2, P = 0.02) and fasting blood glucose (MD = -0.38, 95% CI = -0.05 to -0.72, P = 0.03); no sex differences were observed for other cardiometabolic health indicators. CONCLUSION: There are no sex differences for relative improvements in CRF after HIIT; however, females are greatly underrepresented in trials. Future studies should increase female participation and perform sex-based analyses to determine sex-specific outcomes following HIIT.

Associations between left ventricular structure and function with cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition in individuals with cervical and upper thoracic spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional. OBJECTIVE: It is known that left ventricular mass (LVM) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are associated to fat-free mass (FFM).  It is unknown if these factors associated with left ventricular (LV) structure and function outcomes in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: University-based laboratory.Vancouver, BC, Canada. METHODS: Thirty-two individuals (aged 40 ± 11 years) with chronic, motor-complete SCI between the fourth cervical and sixth thoracic levels were recruited. Echocardiographic LV parameters and body composition were assessed at rest, as per the recommended guidelines for each technique. CRF was assessed during an incremental arm-cycle exercise test until volitional fatigue. The appropriate bivariate correlation coefficients [i.e., Pearson's (r) and Spearman's rank (Rs)] tests were used for normal and non-normal distributed variables, respectively. RESULTS: LV structure and function parameters were not associated with the indexed peak oxygen consumption (V̇O2peak) [i.e., relative to body weight or FFM] (Rs values ranged from -0.168 to 0.134, all P values > 0.223). The association between peak oxygen pulse and the resting echocardiographic-obtained SV was medium sized (Rs = 0.331, P = 0.069). The LVM associations with FFM and fat mass (FM) were large and small (r = 0.614, P < 0.001 and r = 0.266, P = 0.141, respectively). Associations of absolute V̇O2peak were medium- positive with FFM (Rs = 0.414, P = 0.021) but negative with FM (Rs = -0.332, P = 0.068). CONCLUSION: LV parameters measured at rest are not associated with V̇O2peak in individuals with cervical and upper-thoracic SCI. Given the observed associations between LVM and V̇O2peak with FFM, future studies may consider utilizing FFM for indexing cardiovascular measures following SCI.

Construct validation of the leisure time physical activity questionnaire for people with SCI (LTPAQ-SCI).

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional construct validation study. OBJECTIVES: To test the construct validity of the Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire for People with Spinal Cord Injury (LTPAQ-SCI) by examining associations between the scale responses and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) in a sample of adults living with spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: Three university-based laboratories in Canada. METHODS: Participants were 39 adults (74% male; M age: 42 ± 11 years) with SCI who completed the LTPAQ-SCI and a graded exercise test to volitional exhaustion using an arm-crank ergometer. One-tailed Pearson's correlation coefficients were computed to examine the association between the LTPAQ-SCI measures of mild-, moderate-, heavy-intensity and total minutes per week of LTPA and CRF (peak volume of oxygen consumption [V̇O2peak] and peak power output [POpeak]). RESULTS: Minutes per week of mild-, moderate- and heavy-intensity LTPA and total LTPA were all positively correlated with V̇O2peak. The correlation between minutes per week of mild intensity LTPA and V̇O2peak was small-medium (r = 0.231, p = 0.079) while all other correlations were medium-large (rs ranged from 0.276 to 0.443, ps < 0.05). Correlations between the LTPAQ-SCI variables and POpeak were also positive but small (rs ranged from 0.087 to 0.193, ps > 0.05), except for a medium-sized correlation between heavy-intensity LTPA and POpeak (r = 0.294, p = 0.035). CONCLUSIONS: People with SCI who report higher levels of LTPA on the LTPAQ-SCI also demonstrate greater levels of CRF, with stronger associations between moderate- and heavy-intensity LTPA and CRF than between mild-intensity LTPA and CRF. These results provide further support for the construct validity of the LTPAQ-SCI as a measure of LTPA among people with SCI.