High Sensitivity of Mobile Phone Microscopy Screening for Schistosoma haematobium in Azaguié, Côte d'Ivoire.

Schistosomiasis infections continue to impact African settings disproportionately, and there is an urgent need for novel tools to evaluate infection control and elimination strategies at the community level. Mobile phone microscopes are portable and semiautomated devices with multiple applications for screening neglected tropical diseases. In a community-based schistosomiasis screening program in Azaguié, Côte d'Ivoire, mobile phone microscopy demonstrated a sensitivity of 85.7% (95% CI: 69.7-95.2%) and specificity of 93.3% (95% CI: 87.7-96.9%) for Schistosoma haematobium identification compared with conventional light microscopy, and 95% sensitivity (95% CI: 74.1-99.8%) with egg concentrations of five or more per 10 mL of urine. Mobile phone microscopy is a promising tool for schistosomiasis control and elimination efforts.

Point-of-Care Sample Preparation and Automated Quantitative Detection of Schistosoma haematobium Using Mobile Phone Microscopy.

Schistosoma haematobium continues to pose a significant public health burden despite ongoing global control efforts. One of several barriers to sustained control (and ultimately elimination) is the lack of access to highly sensitive diagnostic or screening tools that are inexpensive, rapid, and can be used at the point of sample collection. Here, we report an automated point-of-care diagnostic based on mobile phone microscopy that rapidly images and identifies S. haematobium eggs in urine samples. Parasite eggs are filtered from urine within a specialized, inexpensive cartridge that is then automatically imaged by the mobile phone microscope (the "SchistoScope"). Parasite eggs are captured at a constriction point in the tapered cartridge for easy imaging, and the automated quantification of eggs is obtained upon analysis of the images by an algorithm. We demonstrate S. haematobium egg detection with greater than 90% sensitivity and specificity using this device compared with the field gold standard of conventional filtration and microscopy. With simple sample preparation and image analysis on a mobile phone, the SchistoScope combines the diagnostic performance of conventional microscopy with the analytic performance of an expert technician. This portable device has the potential to provide rapid and quantitative diagnosis of S. haematobium to advance ongoing control efforts.

Amplification-free detection of SARS-CoV-2 with CRISPR-Cas13a and mobile phone microscopy.

The December 2019 outbreak of a novel respiratory virus, SARS-CoV-2, has become an ongoing global pandemic due in part to the challenge of identifying symptomatic, asymptomatic, and pre-symptomatic carriers of the virus. CRISPR diagnostics can augment gold-standard PCR-based testing if they can be made rapid, portable, and accurate. Here, we report the development of an amplification-free CRISPR-Cas13a assay for direct detection of SARS-CoV-2 from nasal swab RNA that can be read with a mobile phone microscope. The assay achieved ∼100 copies/µL sensitivity in under 30 min of measurement time and accurately detected pre-extracted RNA from a set of positive clinical samples in under 5 min. We combined crRNAs targeting SARS-CoV-2 RNA to improve sensitivity and specificity and directly quantified viral load using enzyme kinetics. Integrated with a reader device based on a mobile phone, this assay has the potential to enable rapid, low-cost, point-of-care screening for SARS-CoV-2.

Mobile microscopy as a screening tool for oral cancer in India: A pilot study.

Oral cancer is the most common type of cancer among men in India and other countries in South Asia. Late diagnosis contributes significantly to this mortality, highlighting the need for effective and specific point-of-care diagnostic tools. The same regions with high prevalence of oral cancer have seen extensive growth in mobile phone infrastructure, which enables widespread access to telemedicine services. In this work, we describe the evaluation of an automated tablet-based mobile microscope as an adjunct for telemedicine-based oral cancer screening in India. Brush biopsy, a minimally invasive sampling technique was combined with a simplified staining protocol and a tablet-based mobile microscope to facilitate local collection of digital images and remote evaluation of the images by clinicians. The tablet-based mobile microscope (CellScope device) combines an iPad Mini with collection optics, LED illumination and Bluetooth-controlled motors to scan a slide specimen and capture high-resolution images of stained brush biopsy samples. Researchers at the Mazumdar Shaw Medical Foundation (MSMF) in Bangalore, India used the instrument to collect and send randomly selected images of each slide for telepathology review. Evaluation of the concordance between gold standard histology, conventional microscopy cytology, and remote pathologist review of the images was performed as part of a pilot study of mobile microscopy as a screening tool for oral cancer. Results indicated that the instrument successfully collected images of sufficient quality to enable remote diagnoses that show concordance with existing techniques. Further studies will evaluate the effectiveness of oral cancer screening with mobile microscopy by minimally trained technicians in low-resource settings.

A Test-and-Not-Treat Strategy for Onchocerciasis in Loa loa-Endemic Areas.

BACKGROUND: Implementation of an ivermectin-based community treatment strategy for the elimination of onchocerciasis or lymphatic filariasis has been delayed in Central Africa because of the occurrence of serious adverse events, including death, in persons with high levels of circulating Loa loa microfilariae. The LoaScope, a field-friendly diagnostic tool to quantify L. loa microfilariae in peripheral blood, enables rapid, point-of-care identification of persons at risk for serious adverse events. METHODS: A test-and-not-treat strategy was used in the approach to ivermectin treatment in the Okola health district in Cameroon, where the distribution of ivermectin was halted in 1999 after the occurrence of fatal events related to L. loa infection. The LoaScope was used to identify persons with an L. loa microfilarial density greater than 20,000 microfilariae per milliliter of blood, who were considered to be at risk for serious adverse events, and exclude them from ivermectin distribution. Active surveillance for posttreatment adverse events was performed daily for 6 days. RESULTS: From August through October 2015, a total of 16,259 of 22,842 persons 5 years of age or older (71.2% of the target population) were tested for L. loa microfilaremia. Among the participants who underwent testing, a total of 15,522 (95.5%) received ivermectin, 340 (2.1%) were excluded from ivermectin distribution because of an L. loa microfilarial density above the risk threshold, and 397 (2.4%) were excluded because of pregnancy or illness. No serious adverse events were observed. Nonserious adverse events were recorded in 934 participants, most of whom (67.5%) had no detectable L. loa microfilariae. CONCLUSIONS: The LoaScope-based test-and-not-treat strategy enabled the reimplementation of community-wide ivermectin distribution in a heretofore "off limits" health district in Cameroon and is a potentially practical approach to larger-scale ivermectin treatment for lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis in areas where L. loa infection is endemic. (Funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and others.).

Accuracy of Mobile Phone and Handheld Light Microscopy for the Diagnosis of Schistosomiasis and Intestinal Protozoa Infections in Côte d'Ivoire.

BACKGROUND: Handheld light microscopy using compact optics and mobile phones may improve the quality of health care in resource-constrained settings by enabling access to prompt and accurate diagnosis. METHODOLOGY: Laboratory technicians were trained to operate two handheld diagnostic devices (Newton Nm1 microscope and a clip-on version of the mobile phone-based CellScope). The accuracy of these devices was compared to conventional light microscopy for the diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium, S. mansoni, and intestinal protozoa infection in a community-based survey in rural Côte d'Ivoire. One slide of 10 ml filtered urine and a single Kato-Katz thick smear from 226 individuals were subjected to the Newton Nm1 microscope and CellScope for detection of Schistosoma eggs and compared to conventional microscopy. Additionally, 121 sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin (SAF)-fixed stool samples were examined by the Newton Nm1 microscope and compared to conventional microscopy for the diagnosis of intestinal protozoa. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The prevalence of S. haematobium, S. mansoni, Giardia intestinalis, and Entamoeba histolytica/E. dispar, as determined by conventional microscopy, was 39.8%, 5.3%, 20.7%, and 4.9%, respectively. The Newton Nm1 microscope had diagnostic sensitivities for S. mansoni and S. haematobium infection of 91.7% (95% confidence interval (CI) 59.8-99.6%) and 81.1% (95% CI 71.2-88.3%), respectively, and specificities of 99.5% (95% CI 97.0-100%) and 97.1% (95% CI 92.2-99.1%), respectively. The CellScope demonstrated sensitivities for S. mansoni and S. haematobium of 50.0% (95% CI 25.4-74.6%) and 35.6% (95% CI 25.9-46.4%), respectively, and specificities of 99.5% (95% CI 97.0-100%) and 100% (95% CI 86.7-100%), respectively. For G. intestinalis and E. histolytica/E. dispar, the Newton Nm1 microscope had sensitivity of 84.0% (95% CI 63.1-94.7%) and 83.3% (95% CI 36.5-99.1%), respectively, and 100% specificity. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Handheld diagnostic devices can be employed in community-based surveys in resource-constrained settings after minimal training of laboratory technicians to diagnose intestinal parasites.

Multi-Contrast Imaging and Digital Refocusing on a Mobile Microscope with a Domed LED Array.

We demonstrate the design and application of an add-on device for improving the diagnostic and research capabilities of CellScope--a low-cost, smartphone-based point-of-care microscope. We replace the single LED illumination of the original CellScope with a programmable domed LED array. By leveraging recent advances in computational illumination, this new device enables simultaneous multi-contrast imaging with brightfield, darkfield, and phase imaging modes. Further, we scan through illumination angles to capture lightfield datasets, which can be used to recover 3D intensity and phase images without any hardware changes. This digital refocusing procedure can be used for either 3D imaging or software-only focus correction, reducing the need for precise mechanical focusing during field experiments. All acquisition and processing is performed on the mobile phone and controlled through a smartphone application, making the computational microscope compact and portable. Using multiple samples and different objective magnifications, we demonstrate that the performance of our device is comparable to that of a commercial microscope. This unique device platform extends the field imaging capabilities of CellScope, opening up new clinical and research possibilities.

Point-of-care quantification of blood-borne filarial parasites with a mobile phone microscope.

Parasitic helminths cause debilitating diseases that affect millions of people in primarily low-resource settings. Efforts to eliminate onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis in Central Africa through mass drug administration have been suspended because of ivermectin-associated serious adverse events, including death, in patients infected with the filarial parasite Loa loa. To safely administer ivermectin for onchocerciasis or lymphatic filariasis in regions co-endemic with L. loa, a strategy termed "test and (not) treat" has been proposed whereby those with high levels of L. loa microfilariae (>30,000/ml) that put them at risk for life-threatening serious adverse events are identified and excluded from mass drug administration. To enable this, we developed a mobile phone-based video microscope that automatically quantifies L. loa microfilariae in whole blood loaded directly into a small glass capillary from a fingerprick without the need for conventional sample preparation or staining. This point-of-care device automatically captures and analyzes videos of microfilarial motion in whole blood using motorized sample scanning and onboard motion detection, minimizing input from health care workers and providing a quantification of microfilariae per milliliter of whole blood in under 2 min. To validate performance and usability of the mobile phone microscope, we tested 33 potentially Loa-infected patients in Cameroon and confirmed that automated counts correlated with manual thick smear counts (94% specificity; 100% sensitivity). Use of this technology to exclude patients from ivermectin-based treatment at the point of care in Loa-endemic regions would allow resumption/expansion of mass drug administration programs for onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis in Central Africa.

Diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium infection with a mobile phone-mounted Foldscope and a reversed-lens CellScope in Ghana.

We evaluated two novel, portable microscopes and locally acquired, single-ply, paper towels as filter paper for the diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium infection. The mobile phone-mounted Foldscope and reversed-lens CellScope had sensitivities of 55.9% and 67.6%, and specificities of 93.3% and 100.0%, respectively, compared with conventional light microscopy for diagnosing S. haematobium infection. With conventional light microscopy, urine filtration using single-ply paper towels as filter paper showed a sensitivity of 67.6% and specificity of 80.0% compared with centrifugation for the diagnosis of S. haematobium infection. With future improvements to diagnostic sensitivity, newer generation handheld and mobile phone microscopes may be valuable tools for global health applications.

Induction of focal adhesions and motility in Drosophila S2 cells.

Focal adhesions are dynamic structures that interact with the extracellular matrix on the cell exterior and actin filaments on the cell interior, enabling cells to adhere and crawl along surfaces. We describe a system for inducing the formation of focal adhesions in normally non-ECM-adherent, nonmotile Drosophila S2 cells. These focal adhesions contain the expected molecular markers such as talin, vinculin, and p130Cas, and they require talin for their formation. The S2 cells with induced focal adhesions also display a nonpolarized form of motility on vitronectin-coated substrates. Consistent with findings in mammalian cells, the degree of motility can be tuned by changing the stiffness of the substrate and was increased after the depletion of PAK3, a p21-activated kinase. A subset of nonmotile, nonpolarized cells also exhibited focal adhesions that rapidly assembled and disassembled around the cell perimeter. Such cooperative and dynamic fluctuations of focal adhesions were decreased by RNA interference (RNAi) depletion of myosin II and focal adhesion kinase, suggesting that this behavior requires force and focal adhesion maturation. These results demonstrate that S2 cells, a cell line that is well studied for cytoskeletal dynamics and readily amenable to protein manipulation by RNAi, can be used to study the assembly and dynamics of focal adhesions and mechanosensitive cell motility.

Low-cost mobile phone microscopy with a reversed mobile phone camera lens.

The increasing capabilities and ubiquity of mobile phones and their associated digital cameras offer the possibility of extending low-cost, portable diagnostic microscopy to underserved and low-resource areas. However, mobile phone microscopes created by adding magnifying optics to the phone's camera module have been unable to make use of the full image sensor due to the specialized design of the embedded camera lens, exacerbating the tradeoff between resolution and field of view inherent to optical systems. This tradeoff is acutely felt for diagnostic applications, where the speed and cost of image-based diagnosis is related to the area of the sample that can be viewed at sufficient resolution. Here we present a simple and low-cost approach to mobile phone microscopy that uses a reversed mobile phone camera lens added to an intact mobile phone to enable high quality imaging over a significantly larger field of view than standard microscopy. We demonstrate use of the reversed lens mobile phone microscope to identify red and white blood cells in blood smears and soil-transmitted helminth eggs in stool samples.

The efficacy of a novel mobile phone application for goldmann ptosis visual field interpretation.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the efficacy of a novel mobile phone application that calculates superior visual field defects on Goldmann visual field charts. METHODS: Experimental study in which the mobile phone application and 14 oculoplastic surgeons interpreted the superior visual field defect in 10 Goldmann charts. Percent error of the mobile phone application and the oculoplastic surgeons' estimates were calculated compared with computer software computation of the actual defects. Precision and time efficiency of the application were evaluated by processing the same Goldmann visual field chart 10 repeated times. RESULTS: The mobile phone application was associated with a mean percent error of 1.98% (95% confidence interval[CI], 0.87%-3.10%) in superior visual field defect calculation. The average mean percent error of the oculoplastic surgeons' visual estimates was 19.75% (95% CI, 14.39%-25.11%). Oculoplastic surgeons, on average, underestimated the defect in all 10 Goldmann charts. There was high interobserver variance among oculoplastic surgeons. The percent error of the 10 repeated measurements on a single chart was 0.93% (95% CI, 0.40%-1.46%). The average time to process 1 chart was 12.9 seconds (95% CI, 10.9-15.0 seconds). CONCLUSIONS: The mobile phone application was highly accurate, precise, and time-efficient in calculating the percent superior visual field defect using Goldmann charts. Oculoplastic surgeon visual interpretations were highly inaccurate, highly variable, and usually underestimated the field vision loss.

A genome-wide screen identifies conserved protein hubs required for cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion.

Cadherins and associated catenins provide an important structural interface between neighboring cells, the actin cytoskeleton, and intracellular signaling pathways in a variety of cell types throughout the Metazoa. However, the full inventory of the proteins and pathways required for cadherin-mediated adhesion has not been established. To this end, we completed a genome-wide (~14,000 genes) ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) screen that targeted Ca(2+)-dependent adhesion in DE-cadherin-expressing Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells in suspension culture. This novel screen eliminated Ca(2+)-independent cell-cell adhesion, integrin-based adhesion, cell spreading, and cell migration. We identified 17 interconnected regulatory hubs, based on protein functions and protein-protein interactions that regulate the levels of the core cadherin-catenin complex and coordinate cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion. Representative proteins from these hubs were analyzed further in Drosophila oogenesis, using targeted germline RNAi, and adhesion was analyzed in Madin-Darby canine kidney mammalian epithelial cell-cell adhesion. These experiments reveal roles for a diversity of cellular pathways that are required for cadherin function in Metazoa, including cytoskeleton organization, cell-substrate interactions, and nuclear and cytoplasmic signaling.

A whole genome RNAi screen of Drosophila S2 cell spreading performed using automated computational image analysis.

Recent technological advances in microscopy have enabled cell-based whole genome screens, but the analysis of the vast amount of image data generated by such screens usually proves to be rate limiting. In this study, we performed a whole genome RNA interference (RNAi) screen to uncover genes that affect spreading of Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells using several computational methods for analyzing the image data in an automated manner. Expected genes in the Scar-Arp2/3 actin nucleation pathway were identified as well as casein kinase I, which had a similar morphological RNAi signature. A distinct nonspreading morphological phenotype was identified for genes involved in membrane secretion or synthesis. In this group, we identified a new secretory peptide and investigated the functions of two poorly characterized endoplasmic reticulum proteins that have roles in secretion. Thus, this genome-wide screen succeeded in identifying known and unexpected proteins that are important for cell spreading, and the computational tools developed in this study should prove useful for other types of automated whole genome screens.