Two new species of Perenniporia sensu lato (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) from China and two new combinations in Crassisporus.

Phylogenetic and morphological analyses on Perenniporia s.l. were carried out. Phylogenies on Perenniporia s.l. are reconstructed with two loci DNA sequences including the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the large subunit (nLSU). Two new species from Yunnan Province, southwest China, Perenniporiaprunicola and P.rosicola in Perenniporia s.l., are illustrated and described. Perenniporiaprunicola is characterised by the perennial and resupinate basidiomata with a clay pink pore surface when fresh, a trimitic hyphal system, the presence of clavate to fusiform hymenial cystidia, ellipsoid to broadly ellipsoid basidiospores measuring 4.8-6.2 × 3.6-4.5 µm. Perenniporiarosicola is characterised by annual and resupinate basidiomata with a white pore surface when fresh, a dimitic hyphal system, the presence of dendrohyphidia, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose basidiospores measuring 5-5.8 × 4-5.2 µm. In addition, Crassisporus is a genus in Perenniporia s.l., in which two new combinations Crassisporusminutus and C.mollissimus are proposed. Main morphological characteristics of species related to new taxa are also provided.

Three new species of Favolaschia (Mycenaceae, Agaricales) from South China.

The genus Favolaschia within the family Mycenaceae is characterised by the gelatinous basidiomata with poroid hymenophore and most species inhabit monocotyledonous plants. In this study, many samples covering a wide geographic range in China were examined morphologically and phylogenetically using concatenated ITS1-5.8S-ITS2-nLSU sequence data. Three new species clustering in Favolaschiasect.Anechinus, namely Favolaschiaimbricata, F.miscanthi and F.sinarundinariae, are described. Favolaschiaimbricata is characterised by imbricate basidiomata with pale grey to greyish colour when fresh and broadly ellipsoid basidiospores measuring 7-9 × 5-6.8 µm; F.miscanthi is characterised by satin white basidiomata when fresh, broadly ellipsoid basidiospores measuring 7.5-10 × 5.5-7 µm and inhabit rotten Miscanthus; F.sinarundinariae is characterised by greyish-white basidiomata when fresh, dark grey near the base upon drying, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose basidiospores measuring 7-9 × 5-7 µm and inhabit dead Sinarundinaria. The differences amongst the new species and their morphologically similar and phylogenetically related species are discussed. In addition, an updated key to 19 species of Favolaschia found in China is provided.

Stable functional structure despite high taxonomic variability across fungal communities in soils of old-growth montane forests.

BACKGROUND: Major advances over the past decade in molecular ecology are providing access to soil fungal diversity in forest ecosystems worldwide, but the diverse functions and metabolic capabilities of this microbial community remain largely elusive. We conducted a field survey in montane old-growth broadleaved and conifer forests, to investigate the relationship between soil fungal diversity and functional genetic traits. To assess the extent to which variation in community composition was associated with dominant tree species (oak, spruce, and fir) and environmental variations in the old-growth forests in the Jade Dragon Snow Mountain in Yunnan Province, we applied rDNA metabarcoding. We also assessed fungal gene expression in soil using mRNA sequencing and specifically assessed the expression of genes related to organic matter decomposition and nutrient acquisition in ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungi. RESULTS: Our taxonomic profiling revealed striking shifts in the composition of the saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal guilds among the oak-, fir-, and spruce-dominated forests. The core fungal microbiome comprised only ~ 20% of the total OTUs across all soil samples, although the overlap between conifer-associated communities was substantial. In contrast, seasonality and soil layer explained only a small proportion of the variation in community structure. However, despite their highly variable taxonomic composition, fungal guilds exhibited remarkably similar functional traits for growth-related and core metabolic pathways across forest associations, suggesting ecological redundancy. However, we found that the expression profiles of genes related to polysaccharide and protein degradation and nutrient transport notably varied between and within the fungal guilds, suggesting niche adaptation. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our metatranscriptomic analyses revealed the functional potential of soil fungal communities in montane old-growth forests, including a suite of specialized genes and taxa involved in organic matter decomposition. By linking genes to ecological traits, this study provides insights into fungal adaptation strategies to biotic and environmental factors, and sheds light on the importance of understanding functional gene expression patterns in predicting ecosystem functioning. Video Abstract.

Lanostane triterpenoids from mycelia-associated Ganoderma sinense and their anti-inflammatory activity.

Seven previously undescribed lanostane triterpenoids, ganoderic acid M1 (1), M2 (2), M3 (3), M4 (4), M5 (5), M6 (6), and M7 (7), together with eight known compounds, were isolated from mycelia of the basidiomycete Ganoderma sinense (Ganodermataceae). The structures of all compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis. The possible biosynthetic pathway of these fifteen triterpenoids was proposed. Some of the compounds were evaluated for their anti-inflammatory activity by measuring the production of nitric oxide (NO), TNF-α, and IL-6 in RAW264.7 macrophage cells induced by lipopolysaccharide. Lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-3ß,15α,22ß-triacetoxy-26-oic acid (14) exhibited the strongest inhibition of NO production with an IC50 of 0.6 ± 0.1 µM and completely inhibited the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 at 10 µM. The structure-activity relationship of the anti-inflammatory activity is discussed.

Species diversity of pathogenic wood-rotting fungi (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota) in China.

Wood-rotting basidiomycetes have been investigated in the Chinese forest ecosystem for the past 30 years. Two hundred and five pathogenic wood-decayers belonging to 9 orders, 30 families, and 74 genera have been found in Chinese native forests, plantations, and gardens. Seventy-two species (accounting for 35% of the total pathogenic species) are reported as pathogenic fungi in China for the first time. Among these pathogens, 184 species are polypores, nine are corticioid fungi, eight are agarics and five are hydnoid basidiomycetes. One hundred and seventy-seven species (accounting for 86%) cause white rot, while 28 species (accounting for 14%) result in brown rot; 157 species grow on angiosperm trees (accounting for 76.5%) and 44 species occur on gymnosperm trees (accounting for 21.5%), only four species inhabit both angiosperms and gymnosperms (accounting for 2%); 95 species are distributed in boreal to temperate forests and 110 in subtropical to tropical forests. In addition, 17 species, including Fomitopsis pinicola, Heterobasidion parviporum, and Phellinidium weirii etc. which were previously treated as pathogenic species in China, do not occur in China according to recent studies. In this paper, the host(s), type of forest, rot type, and distribution of each pathogenic species in China are given.

Determination and Chemotaxonomic Analysis of Lanostane Triterpenoids in the Mycelia of Ganoderma spp. Using Ultra-performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (I).

A comprehensive and sensitive method combining ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry was developed for the quantification of characteristic triterpenoids in Ganoderma mycelia. Eight ganoderic acids previously isolated from the mycelia of Ganoderma lingzhi were separated with a binary mobile phase on a reversed-phase C18 column. A triple quadrupole mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization source was used as the detector in the negative ion mode. Identification and quantitation of target ganoderic acids were accomplished using the dynamic multiple reaction monitoring mode. The developed method was validated in terms of linearity, precision, accuracy, stability, and recovery. The method was first applied to quantify the contents of eight ganoderic acids in the mycelia of G. lingzhi at different times to determine the optimum fermentation conditions. Subsequently, the distribution of triterpenoids and the contents of eight ganoderic acids in sixteen different Ganoderma species were investigated. The results indicated that UV chromatography combined with dynamic multiple reaction monitoring quantification was an effective chemotaxonomy method for Ganoderma species identification. This study also provided a helpful analytical methodology for both scientific and industrial applications in the quality control of Ganoderma triterpenoids.

Insights into the Ecological Diversification of the Hymenochaetales based on Comparative Genomics and Phylogenomics With an Emphasis on Coltricia.

To elucidate the genomic traits of ecological diversification in the Hymenochaetales, we sequenced 15 new genomes, with attention to ectomycorrhizal (EcM) Coltricia species. Together with published data, 32 genomes, including 31 Hymenochaetales and one outgroup, were comparatively analyzed in total. Compared with those of parasitic and saprophytic members, EcM species have significantly reduced number of plant cell wall degrading enzyme genes, and expanded transposable elements, genome sizes, small secreted proteins, and secreted proteases. EcM species still retain some of secreted carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) and have lost the key secreted CAZymes to degrade lignin and cellulose, while possess a strong capacity to degrade a microbial cell wall containing chitin and peptidoglycan. There were no significant differences in secreted CAZymes between fungi growing on gymnosperms and angiosperms, suggesting that the secreted CAZymes in the Hymenochaetales evolved before differentiation of host trees into gymnosperms and angiosperms. Nevertheless, parasitic and saprophytic species of the Hymenochaetales are very similar in many genome features, which reflect their close phylogenetic relationships both being white rot fungi. Phylogenomic and molecular clock analyses showed that the EcM genus Coltricia formed a clade located at the base of the Hymenochaetaceae and divergence time later than saprophytic species. And Coltricia remains one to two genes of AA2 family. These indicate that the ancestors of Coltricia appear to have originated from saprophytic ancestor with the ability to cause a white rot. This study provides new genomic data for EcM species and insights into the ecological diversification within the Hymenochaetales based on comparative genomics and phylogenomics analyses.

Two new species of Haploporus (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) from China and Ecuador based on morphology and phylogeny.

At present, 25 species are accepted in Haploporus and are distributed in Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Australia, and Africa. In this study, two new species, Haploporus ecuadorensis from Ecuador and H. monomitica from China, are described and illustrated based on morphological examination and phylogenetic analyses. H. ecuadorensis is characterized by annual, resupinate basidiomata with pinkish buff to honey yellow hymenophore when dry, round to angular pores of 2-4 per mm, a dimitic hyphal structure with generative hyphae bearing clamp connections, hyphae at dissepiment edge usually with one or two simple septa, the presence of dendrohyphidia and cystidioles, and oblong to ellipsoid basidiospores measuring 14.9-17.9 × 6.9-8.8 µm. Haploporus monomitica differs from other Haploporus species in that it has a monomitic hyphal system and strongly dextrinoid basidiospores. The differences between the new species and morphologically similar and phylogenetically related species are discussed. In addition, an updated key to 27 species of Haploporus is provided.

Two new species of Antrodia (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) in western China.

Two new species of Antrodia, A. aridula and A. variispora, are described from western China. Phylogeny based on a six-gene dataset (ITS + nLSU + nSSU + mtSSU + TEF1 + RPB2) demonstrates that samples of the two species form two independent lineages within the clade of Antrodia s.s. and are different in morphology from the existing species of Antrodia. Antrodia aridula is characterized by its annual and resupinate basidiocarps with angular to irregular pores of 2-3 mm each and oblong ellipsoid to cylindrical basidiospores measuring 9-12 × 4.2-5.3 µm, growing on gymnosperm wood in a dry environment. Antrodia variispora is characterized by its annual and resupinate basidiocarps with sinuous or dentate pores with a size of 1-1.5 mm each and oblong ellipsoid, fusiform, pyriform, or cylindrical basidiospores measuring 11.5-16 × 4.5-5.5 µm, growing on the wood of Picea. The differences between the new species and morphologically similar species are discussed in this article.

A contribution to Porogramme (Polyporaceae, Agaricomycetes) and related genera.

The polypores with shallow pores from tropical Asia and America are studied. Our molecular phylogeny based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), the large subunit nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (nLSU), the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (TEF1), and the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB1) demonstrates six clades are formed among Porogramme and related genera. Two new genera, Cyanoporus and Pseudogrammothele, are established, and the six clades represent Porogramme, Cyanoporus, Grammothele, Epithele, Theleporus, and Pseudogrammothele, respectively. The molecular clock analyses estimate the divergence times of the six clades based on a dataset (ITS + LSU + TEF1 + RPB1 + RPB2), and we recognize the mean stem ages of the six genera are earlier than 50 Mya. Three new species in Porogramme were morphologically and phylogenetically confirmed, and they are described as P. austroasiana, P. cylindrica, and P. yunnanensis. Phylogenetic analysis shows that type species of Tinctoporellus and Porogramme are nested in the same clade, and Tinctoporellus is treated as a synonym of Porogramme. Based on our phylogeny, twelve new combinations are proposed, and the differences between the new species and similar or related species are discussed.

Climacocystaceae fam. nov. and Gloeoporellaceae fam. nov., two new families of Polyporales (Basidiomycota).

Polyporales is a diverse group of Agaricomycetes including more than 2,500 species belonging to 255 genera and 18 families. Recently, many studies focused on the classification of Polyporales, but the familial placements of some taxa remain uncertain. In this study, two new families, Climacocystaceae and Gloeoporellaceae of Polyporales, are proposed based on morphological characters and molecular data. Phylogenetic analyses of the two new families are inferred from the DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS), the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (nLSU), the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II gene (RPB1), the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II gene (RPB2), and the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (TEF1). Furthermore, the divergence time of Polyporales was estimated as an additional taxonomic criterion based on the conserved regions of five DNA fragments (5.8S, nLSU, RPB1, RPB2, and TEF1). Bayesian evolutionary analysis revealed that the ancestor of Polyporales splits with a mean stem age of 136.53 Mya with a 95% highest posterior density (HPD) of 118.08-158.06 Mya. The mean stem ages of the families within Polyporales originated between 66.02 and 119.22 Mya, of which Climacocystaceae occurred in a mean stem age of 77.49 Mya with a 95% HPD of 61.45-93.16 Mya, and Gloeoporellaceae occurred in a mean stem age of 88.06 Mya with a 95% HPD of 67.15-107.76 Mya.

Two new species of Fistulina (Agaricales, Basidiomycota) from the Northern Hemisphere.

Phylogenetic and morphological analyses on samples of Fistulina from East Asia and North America were carried out, and two new species were described, namely, Fistulina americana and Fistulina orientalis, both previously known as Fistulina hepatica. The former is characterized by lateral stipitate basidiocarps, relatively small pores (7-8 per mm), a monomitic hyphal system with both clamp connections and simple septa, and ellipsoid basidiospores of 4-4.8 × 3-3.3 µm, and the species has been found on Quercus in North-East USA. F. orientalis is characterized by lateral stipitate basidiocarps, very small pores (11-12 per mm) with pruinose dissepiments, a monomitic hyphal system with both clamp connections and simple septa, and ovoid to subglobose basidiospores of 3-4 × 2.7-3 µm, and the species has been found on Castanopsis in East Asia. Phylogenetically, samples of F. americana and F. orientalis form two new lineages nested in the Fistulina clade.

A new contribution to Megasporoporia sensu lato: Six new species and three new combinations.

Megasporoporia sensu lato has recently been intensively studied in China and South America, and four independent clades representing four genera have been recognized phylogenetically. In this study, more samples, mostly from subtropical and tropical Asia, Oceania, and East Africa, are analyzed. A phylogeny based on a 4-gene dataset of sequences (ITS + nLSU + mtSSU + tef) has confirmed the presence of four genera in Megasporoporia sensu lato: Jorgewrightia, Mariorajchenbergia, Megasporia, and Megasporoporia sensu stricto. Six new species, Jorgewrightia austroasiana, Jorgewrightia irregularis, Jorgewrightia tenuis, Mariorajchenbergia subleucoplaca, Megasporia olivacea, and Megasporia sinuosa, are described based on morphology and phylogenetic analysis. Three new combinations are proposed, viz. Jorgewrightia kirkii, Mariorajchenbergia epitephra, and Mariorajchenbergia leucoplaca. To date, 36 species of Megasporoporia sensu lato are accepted and an identification key to these species is provided. In addition, the identification of Dichomitus amazonicus, Dichomitus cylindrosporus, and Megasporoporia hexagonoides is discussed.

Two new forest pathogens in Phaeolus (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) on Chinese coniferous trees were confirmed by molecular phylogeny.

Phaeolus schweinitzii (Fr.) Pat. was originally described in Europe and is considered a common forest pathogen on conifers in the Northern Hemisphere. Our molecular phylogeny based on samples from China, Europe, and North America confirms that P. schweinitzii is a species complex, including six taxa. P. schweinitzii sensu stricto has a distribution in Eurasia; the samples from Northeast and Southwest China are distantly related to P. schweinitzii sensu stricto, and two new species are described after morphological, phylogenetic, and geographical analyses. The species growing on Larix, Picea, and Pinus in Northeast China is described as Phaeolus asiae-orientalis. Another species mostly occurring on Pinus yunnanensis in Southwest China is Phaeolus yunnanensis. In addition, three taxa distributed in North America differ from P. schweinitzii sensu stricto. Phaeolus tabulaeformis (Berk.) Pat. is in Southeast North America, "P. schweinitzii-1" in Northeast North America, and "P. schweinitzii-2" in western North America.

Taxonomy and Multi-Gene Phylogeny of Poroid Panellus (Mycenaceae, Agaricales) With the Description of Five New Species From China.

Panellus is an Agaricales genus with both lamellate and poroid hymenophore. The poroid species are readily overlooked because of their tiny basidiocarps. The Chinese samples of poroid Panellus are studied, and five species, namely Panellus alpinus, Panellus crassiporus, Panellus longistipitatus, Panellus minutissimus, and Panellus palmicola are described as new species based on morphology and molecular phylogenetic analyses inferred from an nrITS dataset and a multi-gene dataset (nrITS + nrLSU + mtSSU + nrSSU + tef1). Panellus alpinus is characterized by its round to ellipsoid pores measuring 4-6 per mm and oblong ellipsoid basidiospores measuring 4.8-6 µm × 2.8-3.6 µm; P. crassiporus differs from other poroid species in the genus by the irregular pores with thick dissepiments and globose basidiospores measuring 8-9.8 µm × 6.9-8 µm; P. longistipitatus is distinguished by its long stipes, pyriform cheilocystidia, and broadly ellipsoid to subglobose basidiospores measuring 7-9.8 µm × 5-7 µm; P. minutissimus is characterized by its tiny and gelatinous basidiocarps, 5-20 pores per basidiocarp, and ellipsoid basidiospores measuring 6-8 µm × 3.2-4.2 µm; P. palmicola is characterized by its round pores measuring 2-4 per mm, the presence of acerose basidioles, and globose basidiospores measuring 7-9.5 µm × 6.2-8.2 µm. An identification key to 20 poroid species of Panellus is provided.

The bacterial and fungal microbiomes of ectomycorrhizal roots from stone oaks and Yunnan pines in the subtropical forests of the Ailao Mountains of Yunnan.

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbioses play an important role in tree biology and forest ecology. However, little is known on the composition of bacterial and fungal communities associated to ECM roots. In the present study, we surveyed the bacterial and fungal microbiome of ECM roots from stone oaks (Lithocarpus spp.) and Yunnan pines (Pinus yunnanensis) in the subtropical forests of the Ailao Mountains (Yunnan, China). The bacterial community was dominated by species pertaining to Rhizobiales and Acidobacteriales, whereas the fungal community was mainly composed of species belonging to the Russulales and Thelephorales. While the bacterial microbiome hosted by ECM roots from stone oaks and Yunnan pines was very similar, the mycobiome of these host trees was strikingly distinct. The microbial networks for bacterial and fungal communities showed a higher complexity in Lithocarpus ECM roots compared to Pinus ECM roots, but their modularity was higher in Pinus ECM roots. Seasonality also significantly influenced the fungal diversity and their co-occurrence network complexity. Our findings thus suggest that the community structure of fungi establishing and colonizing ECM roots can be influenced by the local soil/host tree environment and seasonality. These results expand our knowledge of the ECM root microbiome and its diversity in subtropical forest ecosystems.

What is the correct scientific name for "Fuling" medicinal mushroom?

In recent years, the scientific names of many cultivated and well-known medicinal fungal species have been changed. However, the results of taxonomic and nomenclature works on these economically important fungi are often overlooked or ignored in applied researches. The incorrect use of scientific names may cause uncertainty in research and in the global medicinal mushroom market. In this paper, we briefly review the current taxonomy and nomenclature of "Fuling" medicinal mushroom and make a proposal for biochemists, pharmacists and businessmen on the correct use of scientific names related to this species. Based on the recent taxonomic results and nomenclatural proposals, the use of the names Wolfiporia extensa, W. cocos and especially Poria cocos for the "Fuling" mushroom are incorrect and misleading; therefore, the acceptance of the names Pachyma hoelen or Wolfiporia hoelen is recommended.

Optimization for the production of a polyketone 3S,4S-DMD from Panus lecomtei (Agaricomycetes) by submerged fermentation.

3,4-Dihydroxy-2,2-dimethyl-chroman derivatives have diverse physiological properties. A polyketone (3S,4S)-3,4-Dihydroxy-6-methoxy-2,2-dimethylchromom (3S,4S-DMD) with antibacterial activity was isolated from the solid culture of rare edible fungus Panus lecomtei. However, the yield of 3S,4S-DMD in solid culture of P. lecomtei is very low and the production period are too long. In this work, efficient accumulation of 3S,4S-DMD in P. lecomtei by submerged fermentation is studied. The key fermentation factors of P. lecomtei for 3S,4S-DMD production were optimised by single-factor experiment successively, and then a Box-Behnken design (BBD) experiment was carried out to further enhance 3S,4S-DMD production. A maximum 3S,4S-DMD yield of 196.3 mg/L was obtained at 25.78 g/L glucose, 1.67 g/L MgSO4 · 7H2O, 40°C and 197 r/min, respectively, which increased by 1.3-fold in comparison with that in the non-optimised fermentation conditions. Furthermore, an enhanced yield of 3S,4S-DMD (261.6 mg/L) was obtained in 5-L agitated fermenter. The 3S,4S-DMD productivity in flask and fermenter reached to 7.26 and 8.07 mg/g per day, respectively, which considerably increased by over 121-fold in comparison with that in the solid fermentation (0.06 mg/g per day). This study presents a potential method for the production of 3S,4S-DMD by submerged fermentation.

Pseudomonas spp. Enriched in Endophytic Community of Healthy Cotton Plants Inhibit Cotton Verticillium Wilt.

The plant microbiome plays a fundamental role in plant growth and health. However, detailed information regarding the plant endophytic microbiome during the infection period of a pathogen is largely unknown. Here, we investigated the microbial community of healthy and diseased cotton plants and the root exudate profiles of susceptible and resistant cultivars utilizing high-throughput sequencing and metabolomics. The results showed that the pathogen infection reduced bacterial diversity and significantly affected the bacterial community composition. The microbiome assembly is shaped predominantly by cultivars. The endophytic microbiome of the infected plants showed greater complexity than the healthy plants in network analysis. The results displayed that a total of 76 compounds were significantly different in the two groups, with 18 compounds showing a higher relative abundance in the resistant cultivars and 58 compounds in the susceptible cultivars. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that pathways related to plant hormone signal transduction, biosynthesis of various secondary metabolites, and biosynthesis and metabolism of amino acids were prominently altered. We also demonstrate that plants inoculated with Pseudomonas sp. strains showed increased resistance to the cotton Verticillium wilt compared with the control plants in pot experiments. Overall, it showed that the pathogen infection affected the community composition, and healthy plants displayed an enriched beneficial microbiome to combat the plant disease. These findings significantly advance our understanding of the endophytic microbiome assembly under the pathogen infection and develop microbiome-based solutions for sustainable crop production systems.

Phylogeny and Diversity of the Genus Pseudohydnum (Auriculariales, Basidiomycota).

The toothed jelly fungus Pseudohydnum gelatinosum was originally described from Europe. The name has a broad sense and the species has been widely reported almost all over the world. We have studied samples of so-called P. gelatinosum from Asia and Oceania. Based on morphology, hosts, geography, and phylogenetic analysis using the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITSs) and the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (nLSU), four new species, P. himalayanum, P. orbiculare, P. sinogelatinosum, and P. tasmanicum, from China, New Zealand, and Australia are described and illustrated, and a new combination, Pseudohydnum totarae, is proposed. The five new taxa can be differentiated by the shape of their basidiomata, pileal surface color when fresh, spine size, basidiospore dimensions, shape of hyphidia, hosts, and biogeography. Phylogenetically, most of these taxa are distantly related, and different base pairs among these taxa mostly account for >2% nucleotides in the ITS regions.