Heating events in the nascent solar system recorded by rare earth element isotopic fractionation in refractory inclusions.

Equilibrium condensation of solar gas is often invoked to explain the abundance of refractory elements in planets and meteorites. This is partly motivated, by the observation that the depletions in both the least and most refractory rare earth elements (REEs) in meteoritic group II calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) can be reproduced by thermodynamic models of solar nebula condensation. We measured the isotopic compositions of Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Dy, Er, and Yb in eight CAIs to test this scenario. Contrary to expectation for equilibrium condensation, we find light isotope enrichment for the most refractory REEs and more subdued isotopic variations for the least refractory REEs. This suggests that group II CAIs formed by a two-stage process involving fast evaporation of preexisting materials, followed by near-equilibrium recondensation. The calculated time scales are consistent with heating in events akin to FU Orionis- or EX Lupi-type outbursts of eruptive pre-main-sequence stars.

Evidence of presolar SiC in the Allende Curious Marie calcium aluminum rich inclusion.

Calcium aluminum rich inclusions (CAIs) are one of the first solids to have condensed in the solar nebula, while presolar grains formed in various evolved stellar environments. It is generally accepted that CAIs formed close to the Sun at temperatures above 1500 K, where presolar grains could not survive, and were then transported to other regions of the nebula where the accretion of planetesimals took place. In this context, a commonly held view is that presolar grains are found solely in the fine-grained rims surrounding chondrules and in the low-temperature fine-grained matrix that binds the various meteoritic components together. Here we demonstrate, based on noble gas isotopic signatures, that presolar SiC have been incorporated into fine-grained CAIs in the Allende carbonaceous chondrite at the time of their formation, and have survived parent body processing. This finding provides new clues on the conditions in the nascent solar system at the condensation of first solids.

Rapid emergence of subaerial landmasses and onset of a modern hydrologic cycle 2.5 billion years ago.

The history of the growth of continental crust is uncertain, and several different models that involve a gradual, decelerating, or stepwise process have been proposed1-4. Even more uncertain is the timing and the secular trend of the emergence of most landmasses above the sea (subaerial landmasses), with estimates ranging from about one billion to three billion years ago5-7. The area of emerged crust influences global climate feedbacks and the supply of nutrients to the oceans 8 , and therefore connects Earth's crustal evolution to surface environmental conditions9-11. Here we use the triple-oxygen-isotope composition of shales from all continents, spanning 3.7 billion years, to provide constraints on the emergence of continents over time. Our measurements show a stepwise total decrease of 0.08 per mille in the average triple-oxygen-isotope value of shales across the Archaean-Proterozoic boundary. We suggest that our data are best explained by a shift in the nature of water-rock interactions, from near-coastal in the Archaean era to predominantly continental in the Proterozoic, accompanied by a decrease in average surface temperatures. We propose that this shift may have coincided with the onset of a modern hydrological cycle owing to the rapid emergence of continental crust with near-modern average elevation and aerial extent roughly 2.5 billion years ago.

A nucleosynthetic origin for the Earth's anomalous (142)Nd composition.

A long-standing paradigm assumes that the chemical and isotopic compositions of many elements in the bulk silicate Earth are the same as in chondrites. However, the accessible Earth has a greater (142)Nd/(144)Nd ratio than do chondrites. Because (142)Nd is the decay product of the now-extinct (146)Sm (which has a half-life of 103 million years), this (142)Nd difference seems to require a higher-than-chondritic Sm/Nd ratio for the accessible Earth. This must have been acquired during global silicate differentiation within the first 30 million years of Solar System formation and implies the formation of a complementary (142)Nd-depleted reservoir that either is hidden in the deep Earth, or lost to space by impact erosion. Whether this complementary reservoir existed, and whether or not it has been lost from Earth, is a matter of debate, and has implications for determining the bulk composition of Earth, its heat content and structure, as well as for constraining the modes and timescales of its geodynamical evolution. Here we show that, compared with chondrites, Earth's precursor bodies were enriched in neodymium that was produced by the slow neutron capture process (s-process) of nucleosynthesis. This s-process excess leads to higher (142)Nd/(144)Nd ratios; after correction for this effect, the (142)Nd/(144)Nd ratios of chondrites and the accessible Earth are indistinguishable within five parts per million. The (142)Nd offset between the accessible silicate Earth and chondrites therefore reflects a higher proportion of s-process neodymium in the Earth, and not early differentiation processes. As such, our results obviate the need for hidden-reservoir or super-chondritic Earth models and imply a chondritic Sm/Nd ratio for the bulk Earth. Although chondrites formed at greater heliocentric distances and contain a different mix of presolar components than Earth, they nevertheless are suitable proxies for Earth's bulk chemical composition.

Constraining the astrophysical origin of the p-nuclei through nuclear physics and meteoritic data.

A small number of naturally occurring, proton-rich nuclides (the p-nuclei) cannot be made in the s- and r-processes. Their origin is not well understood. Massive stars can produce p-nuclei through photodisintegration of pre-existing intermediate and heavy nuclei. This so-called γ-process requires high stellar plasma temperatures and occurs mainly in explosive O/Ne burning during a core-collapse supernova. Although the γ-process in massive stars has been successful in producing a large range of p-nuclei, significant deficiencies remain. An increasing number of processes and sites has been studied in recent years in search of viable alternatives replacing or supplementing the massive star models. A large number of unstable nuclei, however, with only theoretically predicted reaction rates are included in the reaction network and thus the nuclear input may also bear considerable uncertainties. The current status of astrophysical models, nuclear input and observational constraints is reviewed. After an overview of currently discussed models, the focus is on the possibility to better constrain those models through different means. Meteoritic data not only provide the actual isotopic abundances of the p-nuclei but can also put constraints on the possible contribution of proton-rich nucleosynthesis. The main part of the review focuses on the nuclear uncertainties involved in the determination of the astrophysical reaction rates required for the extended reaction networks used in nucleosynthesis studies. Experimental approaches are discussed together with their necessary connection to theory, which is especially pronounced for reactions with intermediate and heavy nuclei in explosive nuclear burning, even close to stability.

Hf-W-Th evidence for rapid growth of Mars and its status as a planetary embryo.

Terrestrial planets are thought to have formed through collisions between large planetary embryos of diameter ∼1,000-5,000 km. For Earth, the last of these collisions involved an impact by a Mars-size embryo that formed the Moon 50-150 million years (Myr) after the birth of the Solar System. Although model simulations of the growth of terrestrial planets can reproduce the mass and dynamical parameters of the Earth and Venus, they fall short of explaining the small size of Mars. One possibility is that Mars was a planetary embryo that escaped collision and merging with other embryos. To assess this idea, it is crucial to know Mars' accretion timescale, which can be investigated using the (182)Hf-(182)W decay system in shergottite-nakhlite-chassignite meteorites. Nevertheless, this timescale remains poorly constrained owing to a large uncertainty associated with the Hf/W ratio of the Martian mantle and as a result, contradicting timescales have been reported that range between 0 and 15 Myr (refs 6-10). Here we show that Mars accreted very rapidly and reached about half of its present size in only 1.8(+0.9)(-1.0) Myr or less, which is consistent with a stranded planetary embryo origin. We have found a well-defined correlation between the Th/Hf and (176)Hf/(177)Hf ratios in chondrites that reflects remobilization of Lu and Th during parent-body processes. Using this relationship, we estimate the Hf/W ratio in Mars' mantle to be 3.51 ± 0.45. This value is much more precise than previous estimates, which ranged between 2.6 and 5.0 (ref. 6), and lifts the large uncertainty that plagued previous estimates of the age of Mars. Our results also demonstrate that Mars grew before dissipation of the nebular gas when ∼100-km planetesimals, such as the parent bodies of chondrites, were still being formed. Mars' accretion occurred early enough to allow establishment of a magma ocean powered by decay of (26)Al.

Solvent extraction, ion chromatography, and mass spectrometry of molybdenum isotopes.

A procedure was developed that allows precise determination of molybdenum isotope abundances in natural samples. Purification of molybdenum was first achieved by solvent extraction using di(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate. Further separation of molybdenum from isobar nuclides was obtained by ion chromatography using AG1-X8 strongly basic anion exchanger. Finally, molybdenum isotopic composition was measured using a multiple collector inductively coupled plasma hexapole mass spectrometer. The abundances of molybdenum isotopes 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100 are 14.8428(510), 9.2498(157), 15.9303(133), 16.6787(37), 9.5534(83), 24.1346(394), and 9.6104(312) respectively, resulting in an atomic mass of 95.9304(45). After internal normalization for mass fractionation, no variation of the molybdenum isotopic composition is observed among terrestrial samples within a relative precision on the order of 0.00001-0.0001. This demonstrates the reliability of the method, which can be applied to searching for possible isotopic anomalies and mass fractionation.

Heavy nitrogen in carbonatites of the kola peninsula: A possible signature of the deep mantle

Nitrogen and argon isotopes were measured in carbonatites and associated rocks from the Kola Peninsula in Russia. The Kola mantle source, which is thought to be located in the deep mantle, is enriched in heavy nitrogen (+3 per mil relative to air) as compared to Earth's surface (atmosphere and crust, +2 per mil) and the shallow mantle (-4 per mil). Recycling of oceanic crust (+6 per mil) or metal-silicate partitioning may account for the nitrogen isotopic composition of the deep mantle.