Identifying the minimal sets of distance restraints for FRET-assisted protein structural modeling.

Proteins naturally occur in crowded cellular environments and interact with other proteins, nucleic acids, and organelles. Since most previous experimental protein structure determination techniques require that proteins occur in idealized, non-physiological environments, the effects of realistic cellular environments on protein structure are largely unexplored. Recently, Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) has been shown to be an effective experimental method for investigating protein structure in vivo. Inter-residue distances measured in vivo can be incorporated as restraints in molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to model protein structural dynamics in vivo. Since most FRET studies only obtain inter-residue separations for a small number of amino acid pairs, it is important to determine the minimum number of restraints in the MD simulations that are required to achieve a given root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) from the experimental structural ensemble. Further, what is the optimal method for selecting these inter-residue restraints? Here, we implement several methods for selecting the most important FRET pairs and determine the number of pairs Nr that are needed to induce conformational changes in proteins between two experimentally determined structures. We find that enforcing only a small fraction of restraints, Nr/N≲0.08, where N is the number of amino acids, can induce the conformational changes. These results establish the efficacy of FRET-assisted MD simulations for atomic scale structural modeling of proteins in vivo. Significance: Determining protein structure in vivo is essential for understanding protein function. Most protein structures have been studied in non-physiological conditions using x-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy. Thus, we do not know whether the cellular environment significantly affects protein structure. We emphasize the benefits of FRET-assisted molecular dynamics simulations in characterizing protein structure in vivo at the atomic scale. We identify the minimum number of FRET pairs that can induce conformational changes in several proteins, including one that has been characterized using in-cell NMR.

Oleic acid differentially affects lipid droplet storage of de novo synthesized lipids in hepatocytes and adipocytes.

Lipogenesis is a vital but often dysregulated metabolic pathway. Here we use optical photothermal infrared imaging to quantify lipogenesis rates of isotopically labelled oleic acid and glucose concomitantly in live cells. In hepatocytes, but not adipocytes, we find that oleic acid feeding at 60 µM increases the number and size of lipid droplets (LDs) while simultaneously inhibiting storage of de novo synthesized lipids in LDs. Our results demonstrate alternate regulation of lipogenesis between cell types.

Oleic acid differentially affects de novo lipogenesis in adipocytes and hepatocytes.

Lipogenesis is a vital but often dysregulated metabolic pathway. We report super-resolution multiplexed vibrational imaging of lipogenesis rates and pathways using isotopically labelled oleic acid and glucose as probes in live adipocytes and hepatocytes. These findings suggest oleic acid inhibits de novo lipogenesis (DNL), but not total lipogenesis, in hepatocytes. No significant effect is seen in adipocytes. These differential effects may be due to alternate regulation of DNL between cell types and could help explain the complicated role oleic acid plays in metabolism.

Site-Specific Crosslinking Reveals Phosphofructokinase-L Inhibition Drives Self-Assembly and Attenuation of Protein Interactions.

Phosphofructokinase is the central enzyme in glycolysis and constitutes a highly regulated step. The liver isoform (PFKL) compartmentalizes during activation and inhibition in vitro and in vivo respectively. Compartmentalized PFKL is hypothesized to modulate metabolic flux consistent with its central role as the rate limiting step in glycolysis. PFKL tetramers self-assemble at two interfaces in the monomer (interface 1 and 2), yet how these interfaces contribute to PFKL compartmentalization and drive protein interactions remains unclear. Here, we used site-specific incorporation of noncanonical photocrosslinking amino acids to identify PFKL interactors at interface 1, 2, and the active site. Tandem mass tag-based quantitative interactomics reveals interface 2 as a hotspot for PFKL interactions, particularly with cytoskeletal, glycolytic, and carbohydrate derivative metabolic proteins. Furthermore, PFKL compartmentalization into puncta was observed in human cells using citrate inhibition. Puncta formation attenuated crosslinked protein-protein interactions with the cytoskeleton at interface 2. This result suggests that PFKL compartmentalization sequesters interface 2, but not interface 1, and may modulate associated protein assemblies with the cytoskeleton.

Site-specific crosslinking reveals Phosphofructokinase-L inhibition drives self-assembly and attenuation of protein interactions.

Phosphofructokinase is the central enzyme in glycolysis and constitutes a highly regulated step. The liver isoform (PFKL) compartmentalizes during activation and inhibition in vitro and in vivo, respectively. Compartmentalized PFKL is hypothesized to modulate metabolic flux consistent with its central role as the rate limiting step in glycolysis. PFKL tetramers self-assemble at two interfaces in the monomer (interface 1 and 2), yet how these interfaces contribute to PFKL compartmentalization and drive protein interactions remains unclear. Here, we used site-specific incorporation of noncanonical photocrosslinking amino acids to identify PFKL interactors at interface 1, 2, and the active site. Tandem mass tag-based quantitative interactomics reveals interface 2 as a hotspot for PFKL interactions, particularly with cytoskeletal, glycolytic, and carbohydrate derivative metabolic proteins. Furthermore, PFKL compartmentalization into puncta was observed in human cells using citrate inhibition. Puncta formation attenuated crosslinked protein-protein interactions with the cytoskeleton at interface 2. This result suggests that PFKL compartmentalization sequesters interface 2, but not interface 1, and may modulate associated protein assemblies with the cytoskeleton.

Impact of Service-Based Student Loan Repayment Program on the Primary Care Workforce.

PURPOSE: As the average level of medical education indebtedness rises, physicians look to programs such as Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) and National Health Service Corps (NHSC) to manage debt burden. Both represent service-dependent loan repayment programs, but the requirements and program outcomes diverge, and assessing the relative uptake of each program may help to inform health workforce policy decisions. We sought to describe variation in the composition of repayment program participant groups and measure relative impact on patient access to care. METHODS: In this bivariate analysis, we analyzed data from 10,677 respondents to the American Board of Family Medicine's National Graduate Survey to study differences in loan repayment program uptake as well as the unique participant demographics, scope of practice, and likelihood of practicing with a medically underserved or rural population in each program cohort. RESULTS: The rate of PSLF uptake tripled between 2016 and 2020, from 7% to 22% of early career family physicians, while NHSC uptake remained static at 4% to 5%. Family physicians reporting NHSC assistance were more likely than those reporting PSLF assistance to come from underrepresented groups, demonstrated a broader scope of practice, and were more likely to practice in rural areas (23.3% vs 10.8%) or whole-county Health Professional Shortage Areas (12.5% vs 3.7%) and with medically underserved populations (82.2% vs 24.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Although PSLF supports family physicians intending to work in public service, their peers who choose NHSC are much more likely to work in underserved settings. Our findings may prompt a review of the goals of service loan forgiveness programs with potential to better serve health workforce needs.

Chemical interactions modulate λ6-85 stability in cells.

Because steric crowding is most effective when the crowding agent is similar in size to the molecule that it acts upon and the average macromolecule inside cells is much larger than a small protein or peptide, steric crowding is not predicted to affect their folding inside cells. On the other hand, chemical interactions should perturb in-cell structure and stability because they arise from interactions between the surface of the small protein or peptide and its environment. Indeed, previous in vitro measurements of the λ-repressor fragment, λ6-85 , in crowding matrices comprised of Ficoll or protein crowders support these predictions. Here, we directly quantify the in-cell stability of λ6-85 and distinguish the contribution of steric crowding and chemical interactions to its stability. Using a FRET-labeled λ6-85 construct, we find that the fragment is stabilized by 5°C in-cells compared to in vitro. We demonstrate that this stabilization cannot be explained by steric crowding because, as anticipated, Ficoll has no effect on λ6-85 stability. We find that the in-cell stabilization arises from chemical interactions, mimicked in vitro by mammalian protein extraction reagent (M-PER™). Comparison between FRET values in-cell and in Ficoll confirms that U-2 OS cytosolic crowding is reproduced at macromolecule concentrations of 15% w/v. Our measurements validate the cytomimetic of 15% Ficoll and 20% M-PER™ that we previously developed for protein and RNA folding studies. However, because the in-cell stability of λ6-85 is reproduced by 20% v/v M-PER™ alone, we predict that this simplified mixture could be a useful tool to predict the in-cell behaviors of other small proteins and peptides.

Estimated Costs of Intervening in Health-Related Social Needs Detected in Primary Care.

Importance: Health-related social needs are increasingly being screened for in primary care practices, but it remains unclear how much additional financing is required to address those needs to improve health outcomes. Objective: To estimate the cost of implementing evidence-based interventions to address social needs identified in primary care practices. Design, Setting, and Participants: A decision analytical microsimulation of patients seen in primary care practices, using data on social needs from the National Center for Health Statistics from 2015 through 2018 (N = 19 225) was conducted. Primary care practices were categorized as federally qualified health centers (FQHCs), non-FQHC urban practices in high-poverty areas, non-FQHC rural practices in high-poverty areas, and practices in lower-poverty areas. Data analysis was performed from March 3 to December 16, 2022. Intervention: Simulated evidence-based interventions of primary care-based screening and referral protocols, food assistance, housing programs, nonemergency medical transportation, and community-based care coordination. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was per-person per-month cost of interventions. Intervention costs that have existing federally funded financing mechanisms (eg, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) and costs without such an existing mechanism were tabulated. Results: Of the population included in the analysis, the mean (SD) age was 34.4 (25.9) years, and 54.3% were female. Among people with food and housing needs, most were program eligible for federally funded programs, but had low enrollment (eg, due to inadequate program capacity), with 78.0% of people with housing needs being program eligible vs 24.0% enrolled, and 95.6% of people with food needs being program eligible vs 70.2% enrolled. Among those with transportation insecurity and care coordination needs, eligibility criteria limited enrollment (26.3% of those in need being program eligible for transportation programs, and 5.7% of those in need being program eligible for care coordination programs). The cost of providing evidence-based interventions for these 4 domains averaged $60 (95% CI, $55-$65) per member per month (including approximately $5 for screening and referral management in clinics), of which $27 (95% CI, $24-$31) (45.8%) was federally funded. While disproportionate funding was available to populations seen at FQHCs, populations seen at non-FQHC practices in high-poverty areas had larger funding gaps (intervention costs not borne by existing federal funding mechanisms). Conclusions and Relevance: In this decision analytical microsimulation study, food and housing interventions were limited by low enrollment among eligible people, whereas transportation and care coordination interventions were more limited by narrow eligibility criteria. Screening and referral management in primary care was a small expenditure relative to the cost of interventions to address social needs, and just under half of the costs of interventions were covered by existing federal funding mechanisms. These findings suggest that many resources are necessary to address social needs that fall largely outside of existing federal financing mechanisms.

Cancer Metastases to the Hand: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Metastatic lesions to the hand or wrist are rare and can mimic inflammatory and benign processes such as gout and infections. This often leads to misdiagnosis, underreporting, and delays in treatment. The purpose of this study was to examine all known cases of metastasis to the hand or wrist available in the literature and to analyze demographic trends, metastasis characteristics, and clinical course, and provide recommendations for management. METHODS: An online systematic review of MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, and the Cochrane Library from inception to January 7, 2022, was completed. Studies outlining the care of a patient with acrometastases of the hand were included. Data extracted included age, sex, site of primary tumor and metastasis, presence of other metastases, time from primary diagnosis to acrometastasis diagnosis, misdiagnosis, treatment, and survival. RESULTS: Between 1889 and present, 871 lesions were described in 676 patients who met the inclusion criteria. There was no predilection for hand dominance or site of previous trauma. The mean age among patients was 59.5 (1.5-91) years, and male sex was more common (64.6%). The most common primary cancer source was the lung (39.2%), followed by the kidney (10.8%). The distal phalanx was the most frequently cited tumor location (33.7%). Mean survival after diagnosis of acrometastasis was 6.3 months (0.25-50) ± 11.5 months. CONCLUSION: Acrometastasis remains an uncommon presentation of metastatic disease with poor prognosis. Treatment currently focuses on pain management and optimizing functional outcomes. Our review led to the development of 7 treatment recommendations when managing these patients.

Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity of De Novo Lipogenesis in Fixed and Living Single Cells.

De novo lipogenesis (DNL) is a critical metabolic process that provides the majority of lipids for adipocyte and liver tissue. In cancer, obesity, type II diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease DNL becomes dysregulated. A deeper understanding of the rates and of subcellular organization of DNL is necessary for identifying how this dysregulation occurs and varies across individuals and diseases. However, DNL is difficult to study inside the cell because labeling lipids and their precursors is not trivial. Existing techniques either can only measure parts of DNL, like glucose uptake, or do not provide spatiotemporal resolution. Here, we track DNL in space and time as isotopically labeled glucose is converted to lipids in adipocytes using optical photothermal infrared microscopy (OPTIR). OPTIR provides submicron resolution infrared imaging of the glucose metabolism in both living and fixed cells while also reporting on the identity of lipids and other biomolecules. We show significant incorporation of the labeled carbons into triglycerides in lipid droplets over the course of 72 h. Live cells had better preservation of lipid droplet morphology, but both showed similar DNL rates. Rates of DNL, as measured by the ratio of 13C-labeled lipid to 12C-labeled lipid, were heterogeneous, with differences within and between lipid droplets and from cell to cell. The high rates of DNL measured in adipocyte cells match upregulated rates of DNL previously reported in PANC1 pancreatic cancer cells. Taken together, our findings support a model where DNL is locally regulated to meet energy needs within cells.

Evaluating the Teaching Health Center Graduate Medical Education Model at 10 Years: Practice-Based Outcomes and Opportunities.

Background: Since 2011, the Teaching Health Center Graduate Medical Education (THC GME) program has sought to expand access to care by training residents in safety net settings. Objective: To examine impact on physician scope, location, and patient population served using a unique data set. Methods: Using 2017-2020 data from the American Board of Family Medicine National Graduate Survey, we compared demographics, practice location, populations served, and scope of practice between graduates of THC GME programs and graduates of other family medicine programs. Results: Our sample comprised 8608 (out of 13 465) eligible family medicine graduates 3 years after completion of residency training, for a response rate of 63.9%. THC graduates were significantly more likely than other graduates to practice in a rural location (17.9% to 11.8%), within 5 miles of their residency program (18.9% to 12.9%), and to care for medically underserved populations (35.2% to 18.6%). Their scope of practice was wider than other graduates and more likely to comprise services like buprenorphine prescribing, behavioral health care, and outpatient gynecological procedures. Regression results suggest that THC training is independently correlated with a broader scope of practice. Conclusions: Graduates of THC programs were significantly more likely than graduates of other programs to practice close to their training sites and in rural areas, and to care for underserved patients while maintaining a broader scope of practice than other graduates.

An in Vitro Cytomimetic of In-Cell RNA Folding.

To discover the cytomimetic that accounts for cytoplasmic crowding and sticking on RNA stability, we conducted a two-dimensional scan of mixtures of artificial crowding and sticking agents, PEG10k and M-PERTM . As our model RNA, we investigate the fourU RNA thermometer motif of Salmonella, a hairpin-structured RNA that regulates translation by unfolding and exposing its ribosome binding site (RBS) in response to temperature perturbations. We found that the addition of artificial crowding and sticking agents leads to a stabilization and destabilization of RNA folding, respectively, through the excluded volume effect and surface interactions. FRET-labels were added to the fourU RNA and Fast Relaxation Imaging (FReI), fluorescence microscopy coupled to temperature-jump spectroscopy, probed differences between folding stability of RNA inside single living cells and in vitro. Our results suggest that the cytoplasmic environment affecting RNA folding is comparable to a combination of 20 % v/v M-PERTM and 150 g/L PEG10k.

Spliceosomal SL1 RNA binding to U1-70K: the role of the extended RRM.

The RNA recognition motif (RRM) occurs widely in RNA-binding proteins, but does not always by itself support full binding. For example, it is known that binding of SL1 RNA to the protein U1-70K in the U1 spliceosomal particle is reduced when a region flanking the RRM is truncated. How the RRM flanking regions that together with the RRM make up an 'extended RRM' (eRRM) contribute to complex stability and structural organization is unknown. We study the U1-70K eRRM bound to SL1 RNA by thermal dissociation and laser temperature jump kinetics; long-time molecular dynamics simulations interpret the experiments with atomistic resolution. Truncation of the helix flanking the RRM on its N-terminal side, 'N-helix,' strongly reduces overall binding, which is further weakened under higher salt and temperature conditions. Truncating the disordered region flanking the RRM on the C-terminal side, 'C-IDR', affects the local binding site. Surprisingly, all-atom simulations show that protein truncation enhances base stacking interactions in the binding site and leaves the overall number of hydrogen bonds intact. Instead, the flanking regions of the eRRM act in a distributed fashion via collective interactions with the RNA when external stresses such as temperature or high salt mimicking osmotic imbalance are applied.

Physician- versus practice-level primary care continuity and association with outcomes in Medicare beneficiaries.

OBJECTIVE: To compare physician-level versus practice-level primary care continuity and their association with expenditure and acute care utilization among Medicare beneficiaries and evaluate whether continuity of outpatient primary care at either/both physician or/and practice level could be useful quality measures. DATA SOURCE: Medicare Fee-For-Service claims data for community dwelling beneficiaries without end-stage renal disease who were attributed to a national random sample of primary care practices billing Medicare (2011-2017). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective secondary data analysis at per Medicare beneficiary per year level. We used multivariable linear regression with practice-level fixed effects to estimate continuity of care score at physician versus practice level and their associations with outcomes. DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHOD: We calculated clinician- and practice-level Bice-Boxerman continuity of care index scores, ranging from 0 to 1, using primary care outpatient claims. Medicare expenditures, hospital admissions, emergency department (ED) visits, and readmissions were obtained from the Medicare Beneficiary Summary File: Cost and Utilization Segment. Ambulatory care sensitive conditions (ACSC) were defined using diagnosis codes on inpatient claims. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We studied 2,359,400 beneficiaries who sought care from 13,926 physicians. Every 0.1 increase in physician continuity score was associated with a $151 reduction in expenditure per beneficiary per year (p < 0.01), and every 0.1 increase in practice continuity score was associated with $282 decrease (p < 0.01) per beneficiary per year. Both physician- and practice-level continuity were associated with lower Medicare expenditures among small, medium, and large practices. Both physician- and practice-level continuity were associated with lower probabilities of hospitalization, ED visit, admissions for ACSC, and readmission. CONCLUSIONS: Primary care continuity of care could serve as a potent value-based care quality metric. Physician-level continuity is a unique value center that cannot be supplanted by practice-level continuity.

Increased IL-6 expression precedes reliable viral detection in the rhesus macaque brain during acute SIV infection.

Knowledge of immune activation in the brain during acute HIV infection is crucial for the prevention and treatment of HIV-associated neurological disorders. We determined regional brain (basal ganglia, thalamus, and frontal cortex) immune and virological profiles at 7 and 14 days post infection (dpi) with SIVmac239 in rhesus macaques. The basal ganglia and thalamus had detectable viruses earlier (7 dpi) than the frontal cortex (14 dpi) and contained higher quantities of viruses than the latter. Increased immune activation of astrocytes and significant infiltration of macrophages in the thalamus at 14 dpi coincided with elevated plasma viral load, and SIV colocalized only within macrophages. RNA signatures of proinflammatory responses, including IL-6, were detected at 7 dpi in microglia and interestingly, preceded reliable detection of virus in tissues and were maintained in the chronically infected macaques. Countering the proinflammatory response, the antiinflammatory response was not detected until increased TGF-ß expression was found in perivascular macrophages at 14 dpi. But this response was not detected in chronic infection. Our data provide evidence that the interplay of acute proinflammatory and antiinflammatory responses in the brain likely contributed to the overt neuroinflammation, where the immune activation preceded reliable viral detection.

Academic Achievement, Professionalism, and Burnout in Family Medicine Residents.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Physician burnout has been shown to have roots in training environments. Whether burnout in residency is associated with the attainment of critical educational milestones has not been studied, and is the subject of this investigation. METHODS: We used data from a cohort of graduating family medicine residents registering for the 2019 American Board of Family Medicine initial certification examination with complete data from registration questionnaire, milestone data, in-training examination (ITE) scores, and residency characteristics. We used bivariate and multilevel multivariate analyses to measure the associations between four professionalism milestones ratings and ITE performance with burnout. RESULTS: Our sample included 2,509 residents; 36.8% met the criteria for burnout. Multilevel regression modeling showed a correlation between burnout and failure to meet only one of four professionalism milestones, specifically professional conduct and accountability (OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.07-1.87), while no statistically significant relationship was demonstrated between burnout and being in the lowest quartile of ITE scores. Other factors negatively associated with burnout included international medical education (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.48-0.76) and higher salary compared to cost of housing (OR 0.62, 95% CI 0.46-0.82). CONCLUSIONS: We found significant association between self-reported burnout and failing to meet expectations for professional conduct and accountability, but no relationship between burnout and medical knowledge as measured by lower ITE performance. Further investigation of how this impacts downstream conduct and accountability behaviors is needed, but educators can use this information to examine program-level interventions that can specifically address burnout and development of physician professionalism.

Cellular Sticking Can Strongly Reduce Complex Binding by Speeding Dissociation.

While extensive studies have been carried out to determine protein-RNA binding affinities, mechanisms, and dynamics in vitro, such studies do not take into consideration the effect of the many weak nonspecific interactions in a cell filled with potential binding partners. Here we experimentally tested the role of the cellular environment on affinity and binding dynamics between a protein and RNA in living U-2 OS cells. Our model system is the spliceosomal protein U1A and its binding partner SL2 of the U1 snRNA. The binding equilibrium was perturbed by a laser-induced temperature jump and monitored by Förster resonance energy transfer. The apparent binding affinity in live cells was reduced by up to 2 orders of magnitude compared to in vitro. The measured in-cell dissociation rate coefficients were up to 2 orders of magnitude larger, whereas no change in the measured association rate coefficient was observed. The latter is not what would be anticipated due to macromolecular crowding or nonspecific sticking of the uncomplexed U1A and SL2 in the cell. A quantitative model fits our experimental results, with the major cellular effect being that U1A and SL2 sticking to cellular components are capable of binding, just not as strongly as the free complex. This observation suggests that high binding affinities measured or designed in vitro are necessary for proper binding in vivo, where competition with many nonspecific interactions exists, especially for strongly interacting species with high charge or large hydrophobic surface areas.

Reproductive health in an inpatient psychiatric unit: A retrospective chart review.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the degree to which reproductive health issues are discussed with women of child-bearing age on an inpatient psychiatric unit. We hypothesized that preconception care is limited, and that contraceptive status of patients is rarely elicited. For this sub-analysis, we focused on counseling related to potential impacts of psychotropic medications on pregnancy, and on contraceptive status, especially when prescribed teratogenic medications. METHODS: A retrospective search was conducted for women between the ages of 18 to 49 years at the time of admission, over a 6-month period. One hundred and forty-eight unique encounters were identified, and electronic charts were reviewed for information regarding: discharge medications, medication counseling, contraceptive use, pregnancy and relationship status, pregnancy history, nature of obstetrics and gynecology consults, substance use, and diagnoses. RESULTS: Almost a fifth (n = 29) of encounters included discharge on at least one potentially teratogenic medication and more than 50% had recent substance use. However, less than 10% of all encounters had documentation of contraceptive status and only one case had documented discussion of reproductive effects of medication; this despite the fact that roughly one third (33.8%) had at least one documented prior pregnancy and two patients were pregnant at the time of admission. CONCLUSION: Few women of reproductive age admitted to the inpatient psychiatric unit had chart-documented counseling on reproductive health, including known side effects of teratogenic medications. This indicates an urgent need for inclusion of reproductive health, including counseling on the risks and benefits of taking psychotropics during the peripartum period, into inpatient mental health care.

Understanding the effects of reductionist biological views of eating disorder etiology on patient attitudes and behavior.

While eating disorders were historically considered to be a result of psychological or environmental causes, current evidence suggests that eating disorders are the product of complex gene-environment interactions wherein heritable vulnerabilities are activated by multiple exposures to environmental stimuli over the lifespan. Despite the fact that this integrated biopsychosocial etiological view of eating disorders is accepted among many professionals in the eating disorder field, evidence suggests that the general public and some clinicians are susceptible to dualist, or reductionist, views of psychopathology. Currently, little is known about (a) the prevalence of reductionist biological views of eating disorder etiology in those with eating disorders (this view attributes the cause of eating disorders to predominantly biological factors but does not acknowledge psychosocial factors as important contributors), (b) the effects of reductionist biological views on clinical outcomes, and (c) the most effective methods for modifying these views. In this article, we present the results of a preliminary investigation on the relationship between perceived causes of eating disorders and the attitudes and behaviors of those with eating disorders. We then go on to propose specific avenues for further research on uncovering the effects of reductionist biological views of eating disorder etiology.